A Hebrew word, signifying tradition: it is used for a mysterious kind of science pretended to have been delivered by revelation to the ancient Jews, and transmitted by oral tradition to those of our times; serving for interpretation of the books both of nature and Scripture.
The Jewish doctors who profess the study of the
cabbala. They study principally the combination of particular words, letters,
and numbers; and by this, they say, they see clearly into the sense of Scripture.
In their opinion, there is not a word, letter, number, or accent, in the law,
without some mystery in it; and they even pretend to discover what is future by
this vain study.
Dr. Smith has given us the following description
of the Cabbalistic rabbies.
They have employed the above methods of
interpretation, which have rendered the Scripture a convenient instrument of
subserviency to any purpose which they might choose. Disregarding the
continuity of subject, and the harmony of parts, in any Scriptural composition,
they selected sentences, and broken pieces of sentences, and even single words
and detached letters; and these they proposed to the ignorant and abused
multitude as the annunciations of truth and authority. To ascertain the native
sense of the sacred writers, however momentous and valuable, was no object of
their desire. Attention to the just import of words, to the scope of argument,
and to the connection of parts, was a labour from which they were utterly
averse, and which they impiously despised. Instead of such faithful and honest
endeavours to know the will of God, they stimulated a sportive fancy, a corrupt
and often absurd ingenuity, to the invention of meanings the most remote from
the design of the inspired writer, and the most foreign from the dictates of an
unsophisticated understanding. No part of the Scriptures was safe from this
profanation. The plainest narrative, the most solemn command, the most clear
and interesting declaration of doctrine, were made to bend beneath this
irreverent violence. History the most true, the most ancient, and the most
important in the world, was considered merely as the vehicle of mystic
allegory. The rule of faith, and the standard of indissoluble duty, were made
flexible and weak as the spider's web, and the commandments of God were
rendered void. See Dr. Smith's Sermon on the Apostolic Ministry compared with
the Pretensions of spurious Religion and false Philosophy.
A sect who sprung up about the year 130; so called, because they esteemed Cain worthy of the greatest honours. They honoured those who carry in Scripture the most visible marks of reprobation; as the inhabitants of Sodom, Esau, Korah, Dathan, and Abram. They had in particular great veneration for Judas, under the pretence that the death of Christ had saved mankind.
A branch of the Hussites in Bohemia and Moravia, in the fifteenth century. The principal point in which they differed from the church of Rome was the use of the chalice (calix) or communicating in both kinds. Calixtins was also a name given to those among the Lutherans who followed the opinions of George Calixtus, a celebrated divine in the sevententh century, who endeavoured to unite the Romish, Lutheran, and Calvinistic churches, in the bonds of charity and mutual benevolence. He maintained, 1. that the fundamental doctrines of Christianity, by which he meant those elementary principles whence all its truths flow, were preserved pure in all three communions, and were contained in that ancient form of doctrine that is vulgarly known by the name of the apostles' creed.--2. that the tenets and opinions which had been constantly received by the ancient doctors, during the first five centuries, were to be considered as of equal truth and authority with the express declarations and doctrines of Scripture.
Generally denotes God's invitation to man to
participate the blessing of salvation: it is termed effectual, to distinguish
it from that external or common call of the light of nature, but especially of
the Gospel, in which men are invited to come to God, but which has no saving
effect upon the heart: thus it is said, "Many are called, but few
chosen." Matt. xxii. 14. Effectual calling has been more particularly
defined to be " the work of God's Spirit, whereby, convincing us of our
sin and misery, enlightening our minds with the knowledge of Christ, and
renewing our wills, he doth persuade and enable us to embrace Jesus Christ
freely offered to us in the Gospel." This may farther be considered as a
call from darkness to light, 1 Pet. ii. 9; from bondage to liberty, Gal. ii. 13;
from the fellowship of the world to the fellowship of Christ, 1 Cor. i. 9; from
misery to happiness, 1 Cor. vii. 15; from sin to holiness, 1 Thess. iv. 7;
finally, from all created good to the enjoyment of eternal felicity, 1 Pet. v.
10. It is considered in the Scripture as an holy calling, 2 Tim. i. 9; an high
calling, Phil. iii. 14; an heavenly calling, Heb. iii. 1; and without
repentance, as God will never cast off any who are once drawn to him, Rom. xi.
29.
It has been a matter of dispute whether the
Gospel call should be general, i.e. preached to all men indiscriminately. Some
suppose that, as the elect only will be saved, it is to be preached only to
them; and, therefore, cannot invite all to come to Christ. But to this it is
answered, that an unknown decree can be no rule of action, Deut. xxix. 29.
Prov. ii. 13; that, as we know not who are the elect, we cannot tell but he may
succeed our endeavours by enabling those who are addressed to comply with the
call, and believe; that it is the Christian minister's commission to preach the
Gospel to every creature, Mark xvi. 15; that the inspired writers never
confined themselves to preach to saints only, but reasoned with and persuaded
sinners, 2 Cor. v. 11:--and, lastly that a general address to men's consciences
has been greatly successful in promoting their conversion. Acts ii. 23,41. But
it has been asked, if none but the elect can believe, and no man has any
ability in himself to comply with the call, and as the Almighty knows that none
but those to whom he gives grace can be effectually called, of what use is it
to insist on a general and external call? To this it is answered, that, by the
external call, gross enormous crimes are often avoided; habits of vice have
been partly conquered; and much moral good at least has been produced. It also
observed, that though a man cannot convert himself, yet he has a power to do
some things that are materially good, though not good in all those
circumstances that accompany or flow from regeneration: such were Ahab's
humility, 1 Kings xxi 29; Nineveh's repentance, Jer. iii. 5; and Herod's
hearing of John, Mark vi. 20. On the whole, the design of God in giving this
common call in the Gospel is the salvation of his people, the restraining of
many from wicked practices and the setting forth of the glorious work of
redemption by Jesus Christ. See Gill and Ridgley's Body of Div.; Witsius on the
Cov.; and Bennet's Essay on the Gospel Dispensation.
Those who embrace the doctrine and sentiments of
Calvin, the celebrated reformer of the Christian church from Romish
superstition and doctrinal errors.
John Calvin was born at Nogen, in Picardy, in the
year 1509. He first studied the civil law, and was afterwards made professor of
divinity at Geneva, in the year 1536. His genius, learning, eloquence, and
piety, rendered him respectable even in the eyes of his enemies.
The name of Calvinists seems to have been given
at first to those who embraced not merely the doctrine, but the church
government and discipline established at Geneva, and to distinguish them from
the Lutherans. But since the meeting of the synod of Dort, the name has been
chiefly applied to those who embrace his leading views of the Gospel, to distinguish
them from the Arminians.
The leading principles taught by Calvin, were the
same as those of Augustine. The main doctrines by which those who are called
after his name are distinguished from the Arminians, are reduced to five
articles: and which, from their being the principal points discussed at the
synod of Dort, have since been denominated the five points. These are,
predestination, particular redemption, total depravity, effectual calling, and
the certain perseverance of the saints.
The following statement is taken, principally
from the writings of Calvin and the decisions at Dort, compressed in as few
words as possible.
1. They maintain that God hath chosen a certain
number of the fallen race of Adam in Christ, before the foundation of the
world, unto eternal glory, according to his immutable purpose, and of his free
grace and love, without at least foresight of faith, good works, or any
conditions performed by the creature; and that the rest of mankind he was
pleased to pass by, and ordain to dishonour and wrath, for their sins, to the
praise of his vindictive justice.
In proof of this they allege, among many other
Scripture passages, the following: "According as he hath chosen us in him
before the foundation of the world, that we should be holy, and without blame
before him in love.--For he saith to Moses, I will have mercy on whom I will
have mercy, and I will have compassion on whom I will have compassion. So,
then, it is not of him that willeth, nor of him that runneth, but of God, that
showeth mercy. Thou wilt say, then, Why doth he yet find fault; for who hath
resisted his will? Nay, but, O man! who art thou that repliest against God?
Shall the thing formed say to him that formed it, Why hast thou made me thus?
Hath not the potter power over the clay, of the same lump to make one vessel
unto honour and another unto dishonour?--Hath God cast away his people whom he
foreknew? Wot ye not what the Scripture saith of Elias? Even so at this present
time, also, there is a remnant according to the election of grace. And if by
grace, then it is no more of works. What then? Israel hath not obtained that
which he seeketh for, but the election hath obtained it, and the rest are
blinded.--Whom he did predestinate, them he also called.--We give thanks to God
always for you brethren beloved of the Lord, because God hath from the
beginning chosen you to salvation, through sanctification of the Spirit and
belief of the truth.--As many as were ordained to eternal life, believed."
Eph. i. 4. Rom. ix. xi. 1-6. viii. 29,30. 2 Thess. ii. 13.Acts xiii. 48. They
think also that the greater part of these passages, being found in the
epistolary writings, after the pouring out of the Holy Spirit, who was promised
to guide the apostles into all truth, is an argument in favour of the doctrine.
They do not consider predestination, however, as
affecting the agency or accountableness of creatures, or as being to them any
rule of conduct. On the contrary, they suppose them to act as freely, and to be
as much the proper subjects of calls, warnings, exhortations, promises, and
threatenings, as if no decree existed. The connexion in which the doctrine is
introduced by the divines at Dort, is to account for one sinner's believing and
being saved rather than another; and such, the Calvinists say, is the
connection which it occupies in the Scriptures.
With respect to the conditional predestination
admitted by the Arminians, they say that an election upon faith or good works
foreseen, is not that of the Scriptures; for that election is there made the
cause of faith and holiness, and cannot, for this reason, be the effect of
them. With regard to predestination to death, they say, if the question be,
Wherefore did God decree to punish those who are punished? the answer is, On
account of their sins. But if it be, Wherefore did he decree to punish them
rather than others? there is no other reason to be assigned, but that so it
seemed good in his sight. Eph. i. 3,4. John vi. 37. Rom. viii. 29, 30. Acts
xiii. 48. 1 Pet. i.1. Rom. ix. 15, 16. xi. 5,6.
2. They maintain that though the death of Christ
be a most perfect sacrifice, and satisfaction for sins, of infinite value,
abundantly sufficient to expiate the sins of the whole world; and though on
this ground the Gospel is to be preached to all mankind indiscriminately; yet
it was the will of God that Christ, by the blood of the cross, should
efficaciously redeem all those, and those only, who were from eternity elected
to salvation, and given to him by the Father. Calvin does not appear to have
written on this subject as a controversy, but his comments on Scripture agree
with the above statement. The following positions are contained in the
resolutions of the synod of Dort, under this need of doctrine:--"The death
of the Son of God is the only and most perfect sacrifice and satisfaction for
sins, of infinite value and price, abundantly sufficient to expiate the sins of
the whole world.--The promise of the Gospel is, that whosoever believeth in
Christ crucified shall not perish, but have everlasting life; which promise,
together with the command to repent and believe, ought promiscuously and
indiscriminately to be published and proposed to all people and individuals, to
whom God in his good pleasure sends the Gospel.--Whereas, many who are called
by the Gospel do not repent nor believe in Christ, but perish in unbelief; this
proceeds not from any defect or insufficiency in the sacrifice of Christ
offered on the cross, but from their own fault.--As many as truly believe, and
are saved by the death of Christ from their sins, and from destruction, have to
ascribe it to the mere favour of God, which he owes to no one, given them in
Christ from eternity.--For it was the most free counsel, and gracious will and
intention of God the Father, that the quickening and saving efficacy of the
most precious death of his Son should exert itself in all the elect, to give
unto them only justifying faith, and by it to conduct them infallibly to
salvation; that is, it was the will of God that Christ, by the blood of the
cross, whereby he confirmed the new covenant, should efficaciously redeem out
of every people, tribe, nation, and language, all those, and those only, who
were from eternity elected to salvation, and given to him by the Father."
These positions they appear to have considered as
not only a declaration of the truth, but an answer to the arguments of the
Remonstrants.
In proof of the doctrine, they allege among
others the following Scripture passages: "Thou hast given him power over
all flesh, that he should give eternal life to as many as thou hast given
him.--The good shepherd giveth his life for the sheep.--I lay down my life for
the sheep.--He died not for that nation only, but that he might gather together
in one the children of God that are scattered abroad.--He gave himself for us,
that he might redeem us from all iniquity, and purify unto himself a peculiar
people, zealous of good works.--He loved the church, and gave himself for it,
that he might sanctify, and cleanse it and present it to himself, &c.--And
they sang a new song, saying, Thou art worthy; for thou wast slain, and hast
redeemed us to God by thy blood, out of every kindred, and tongue, and people,
and nation." John xvii. 2. x. 11, 15. xi. 52. Tit. ii. 14. Eph. v. 25-27.
Rev. v. 9.
3. They maintain that mankind are totally
depraved, in consequence of the fall of the first man, who, being their public
head, his sin involved the corruption of all his posterity, and which
corruption extends over the whole soul, and renders it unable to turn to God,
or to do any thing truly good, and exposes it to his righteous displeasure,
both in this world and that which is to come.
The explanation of original sin, as given by
Calvin, is as follows: "Original sin seems to be the inheritable
descending perverseness and corruption of our nature, poured abroad into all
the parts of the soul, which first maketh us deserving of God's wrath, and then
also bringeth forth those works in us, called, in Scripture, the works of the
flesh. These two things are distinctly to be noted, that is, that, being thus
in all parts of our nature corrupted and perverted, we are now, even for such
corruption only, holden worthy of damnation, and stand convicted before God to
whom nothing is acceptable but righteousness, innocence, and purity. And yet we
are not bound in respect of another's fault; for where it is said that by the
sin of Adam we are made subject to the judgment of God, Rom. v. 18. it is not
so to be taken, as if we, innocent and undeserving, did bear the blame of his
fault; but as, in consequence of his offence, we are ultimately clothed with
the curse, therefore it is said that he hath bound us. Nevertheless from him
not the punishment only came upon us, but also the infection distilled from him
abideth in us, to the which the punishment is justly due."
The resolutions of the divines at Dort on this
head, contain the following positions. "Such as man was after the fall,
such children did he beget--corruption by the righteous judgment of God being
derived from Adam to his posterity--not by imitation, but by the propagation of
a vicious nature. Wherefore all men are conceived in sin, and are born the
children of wrath, unfit for every good connected with salvation, prone to
evil, dead in sins, and the servants of sin; and without the Holy Spirit
regenerating them, they neither will nor can return to God, amend their
depraved natures, nor dispose themselves for its amendment.
In proof of this doctrine, the Calvinists allege,
among other Scripture passages, the following: "By one man sin entered
into the world, and death by sin; and so death passed upon all men, for that
all have sinned.--By one man's disobedience many were made sinners.--I was born
in sin, and shapen in iniquity.--God saw that the wickedness of man was great
upon the earth, and that every imagination of his heart was only evil
continually.--God looked down from heaven upon the children of men, to see if
there were any that did understand, that did seek God. Every one of them is
gone back; they are altogether become filthy; there is none that doeth good, no
not one.--And you hath he quickened who were dead in trespasses and sins.
Wherein in time past ye walked according to the course of this world, among whom
also we all had our conversation in times past, in the lust of our flesh,
fulfilling the desires of the flesh, fulfilling the desires of the flesh and of
the mind; and were by nature the children of wrath, even as others." Rom.
v. 12-19. Ps. li. 5. Gen. vi. 5. Ps. liii. 2,3. Rom. iii. Eph. ii. 1-3.
4. They maintain that all whom God hath
predestinated unto life, he is pleased, in his appointed time, effectually to
call by his word and Spirit out of that state of sin and death in which they
are by nature, to grace and salvation by Jesus Christ.
They admit that the Holy Spirit, as calling men
by the ministry of the Gospel, may be resisted: and that where this is the
case, "the fault is not is the Gospel, nor in Christ offered by the
Gospel, nor in God calling by the Gospel, and also conferring various gifts
upon them; but in the called themselves. They contend, however, that where men
come at the divine call, and are converted, it is not to be ascribed to
themselves, as though by their own free will they made themselves to differ,
but merely to him who delivers them from the power of darkness, and translates
them into the kingdom of his dear Son, and whose regenerating influence is
certain and efficacious."
In proof of this doctrine the Calvinists allege,
among others, the following Scripture passages: "Whom he did predestinate,
them he also called; and whom he called, them he also glorified.--That ye may
know what is the exceeding greatness of his power to usward who believe,
according to the working of his mighty power, which he wrought in Christ when
he raised him from the dead.--Not of works, lest any man should boast. For we
are his workmanship created in Christ Jesus unto good works.--God, that
commanded the light to shine out of darkness, hath shined into our hearts,
&c.--I will take away the stony heart out of their flesh, and will give
them hearts of flesh." Rom. viii. 29. Eph. i. 19, 20. ii. 9, 10. 2 Cor.
iv. 6. Ezek. xxxvi 26.
5. Lastly: They maintain that those whom God has
effectually called, and sanctified by his Spirit, shall never finally fall from
a state of grace. They admit that true believers may fall partially, and would
fall totally and finally but for the mercy and faithfulness of God, who keepeth
the feet of his saints; also, that he who bestoweth the grace of perseverance,
bestoweth it by means of reading and hearing the word, meditation,
exhortations, threatenings, and promises; but that none of these things imply
the possibility of a believer's falling from a state of justification.
In proof of this doctrine they allege the
following among other Scripture passages:--"I will put my fear in their
hearts, and they shall not depart from me.--He that believeth, and is baptized,
shall be saved.--The water that I shall give him shall be in him a well of
water springing up into everlasting life.--This is the Father's will, that of
all which he hath given me I should lose nothing.--This is life eternal, to
know thee, the only true God, and Jesus Christ whom thou hast sent.--Whosoever
is born of God doth not commit sin, for his seed remaineth in him; and he
cannot sin, because he is born of God. They went out from us, but they were not
of us; for if they had been of us, they would have continued with us: but they
went out, that they might be made manifest that they were not all of us.--Now
unto him that is able to keep you from falling, and to present you faultless
before the presence of his glory with exceeding joy, to the only wise God our
Saviour, be glory and majesty, dominion and power, both now and ever,
Amen." Jer. xxxii. 40. Mark xvi. 16. John iv. 14. vi. 40. xvii. 3. 1 John
iii. 9. ii. 19. Jude 24, 25.
Such were the doctrines of the old Calvinists,
and such in substance are those of the present times. In this, however, as in
every other denomination, there are considerable shades of difference.
Some think Calvin, though right in the main, yet
carried things too far; these are commonly known by the name of Moderate
Calvinists. Others think he did not go far enough; and these are known by the
name of High Calvinists.
It is proper to add, that the Calvinistic system
includes in it the doctrine of three co-ordinate persons in the Godhead, in one
nature, and of two natures in Jesus Christ, forming one person. Justification
by faith alone, or justification by the imputed righteousness of Christ, forms
also an essential part of this system. They suppose that on the one hand our
sins are imputed to Christ, and on the other, that we are justified by the
imputation of Christ's righteousness to us; that is, Christ, the innocent, was
treated by God as if he were guilty, that we, the guilty, might out of regard
to what he did and suffered, be treated as if we were innocent and righteous.
Calvinism originally subsisted in its greatest
purity in the city of Geneva; from which place it was first propagated into
Germany, France, the United Provinces, and Britain. In France it was abolished
by the revocation of the edict of Nantz. It has been the prevailing religion in
the United Provinces ever since 1571. The theological system of Calvin was
adopted and made the public rule of faith in England under the reign of Edward
VI. The church of Scotland also was modeled by John Knox, agreeably to the
doctrine, rites, and form of ecclesiastical government established at Geneva.
In England, Calvinism had been on the decline from the time of queen Elizabeth
until about sixty years ago, when it was again revived, and has been on the
increase ever since. The major part of the clergy, indeed, are not Calvinists,
though the articles of the church of England are Calvinistical. It deserves to
be remarked, however, that Calvinism is preached in a considerable number of
the churches in London; in nearly all the dissenting meetings of the Presbyterians,
Baptists, and Independents; and in all the chapels of Whitefield, Lady
Huntingdon, and others of that class. In Scotland it continues also to exist as
the established religion; and within a few years it has much revived in that
country, through the influence of Mr. Haldane and others; but as those among
whom this revival has taken place are not of the established church, they have
been treated with indifference by the clergy, and called Haldanists.
Calvin considered every church as a separate and
independent body, invested with the power of legislation for itself. He
proposed that it should be governed by presbyteries and synods composed of
clergy and laity, without bishops, or any clerical subordination; and
maintained that the province of the civil magistrate extended only to its
protection and outward accommodation. He acknowledged a real, though spiritual
presence of Christ in the eucharist; and he confined the privilege of communion
to pious and regenerate believers. These sentiments, however, are not imbibed
by all who are called Calvinists.
See Calvin's Institutes; Life of Calvin; Brine's
Tracts; Jonathan Edwards' Works; Gill's Cause of God and Truth; Toplady's
Historic Proof and Works at large; Assembly's Catechism; Fuller's Calvinistic
and Socinian Systems compared.
An order founded by St. Romuald, and Italian fanatic, in the eleventh century. The manner of life he enjoined his disciples to observe was this:--They dwelt in separate cells, and met together only at the time of prayer. Some of them, during the two Lents in the year, observed an inviolable silence, and others for the space of a hundred days. On Sundays and Thursdays they fed on herbs, and the rest of the week only on bread and water.
A copy of the Gospels and Acts of the Apostles, in Greek and Latin. Beza found it in the monastery of Irenxus, at Lyons, in 1562, and gave it to the university of Cambridge in 1582. It is a quarto, and written on vellum: sixty-six leaves of it are much torn and mutilated; and ten of these are supplied by a later transcriber. From this and the Clermont copy of St. Paul's epistles, Beza published his larger annotations in 1582. See Dr. Kipling's edition of it.
A sect in Scotland, who separated from the Presbyterians in 1666, and continued long to hold their religious assemblies in the fields. They took their name from Richard Cameron, a famous field-preacher, who, refusing to accept the indulgence to tender consciences, granted by king Charles II. thinking such an acceptance an acknowledgment of the king's supremacy, made a defection from his brethren, and even headed a rebellion, in which he was killed. The Cameronians adhere rigidly to the form of government established in 1648. There are not, it is said, above fourteen or fifteen congregations among them, and these not large.
Or CAMERONITES, the denomination of a party of Calvinists in France, who asserted that the will of man is only determined by the practical judgment of the mind; that the cause of men's doing good or evil proceeds from the knowledge which God infuses into them; and that God does not move the will physically, but only morally, in virtue of its dependence on the judgment. They had this name from John Cameron, who was born at Glasgow in 1580, and who was professor there, and afterwards at Bourdeaux, Sedan, and Saumur. The synod of Dort was severe upon them; yet it seems the only difference was this:--The synod had defined that God not only illuminates the understanding, but gives motion to the will, by making an internal change therein. Cameron only admitted the illumination whereby the mind is morally moved; and explained the sentiment of the Synod of Dort so as to make the two opinions consistent.
Is a disposition to form a fair and impartial judgment on the opinions and actions of others; or a temper of mind unsoured by envy, unruffled by malice, and unseduced by prejudice; sweet without weakness, and impartial without rigour. Candour is a word which, in the present day, is found exceedingly convenient. To the infidel it is a shelter for his scepticism, to the ignorant for his ignorance, to the lukewarm for his indifference, and to the irreligious for their error. "True candour is different from that guarded, inoffensive language, and that studied openness of behaviour, which we so frequently meet with among men of the world. It consists not in fairness of speech only, but in fairness of heart. It is not blind attachment, external courtesy, or a time-serving principle. Exempt, on the one land, from the dark jealousy of a suspicious mind, it is no less removed, on the other, from that easy credulity which is imposed on by every specious pretence. Its manners are unaffected, and its professions sincere. 'It conceals faults, but it does not invent virtues. In fine, it is the happy medium between undistinguishing credulity and universal suspicion." See LIBERALITY.
A word used to denote the authorised catalogue
of the sacred writings. "The Greek word" says Dr. Owen, "which
gives rise to the term canonical, seems to be derived from the Hebrew kaneh,
which in general signifies any reed whatever, 1 Kings xiv. 15. Isa. xliii. 3.
and particularly a reed made into an instrument, wherewith they measured their
buildings, containing six cubits in length, Ezek. xl. 7.xliii. 16. and hence
indefinitely it is taken for a rule or measure. Besides, it signifies the beam
and tongue of a balance. Isa. xlvi. 6. 'they weighed silver on the cane; that
is, saith the Targum, 'in the balance.' This also is the primary and proper
signification of the Greek word. Hence common, wherein it signifies a moral
rule. Aristotle calls the law the rule of the administration; and hence it is
that the written word of God being in itself absolutely right, and appointed to
be the rule of faith and obedience, is eminently called 'canonical.'"
The ancient canon of the books of the Old
Testament, ordinarily attributed to Ezra, was divided into the law, the
prophets, and the hagiographia, to which our Saviour refers, Luke xxiv. 45. The
same division is also mentioned by Josephus. This is the canon allowed to have
been followed by the primitive church till the council of Carthage; and,
according to Jerome, this consisted of no more than twenty-two books, answering
to the number of the Hebrew alphabet, though at present they are classed into
twenty-four divisions. That council enlarged the canon very considerably,
taking into it the apocryphal books; which the council of Trent farther
enforced, enjoining them to be received as books of holy Scripture, upon pain
of anathema. The Romanists, in defence of this canon, say, that it is the same
with that of the council of Hippo, held in 393; and with that of the third
council of Carthage of 397, at which were present forty-six bishops, and among
the rest St. Augustine. Their canon of the New Testament, however, perfectly
agrees with ours. It consists of books that are well known, some of which have
been universally acknowledged; such are the four Gospels, the Acts of the
Apostles, thirteen epistles of St. Paul, first of St. Peter, and first of St.
John; and others, concerning which doubts were entertained, but which were
afterwards received as genuine; such are the Epistle to the Hebrews, that of
James, the second of Peter, the second and third of John, that of Jude, and the
Revelation. These books were written at different times; and they are
authenticated, not by the decrees of councils or infallible authority, but by
such evidence as is thought sufficient in the case of any other ancient
writings. They were extensively diffused, and read in every Christian society;
they were valued and preserved with care by the first Christians; they were
cited by Christian writers of the second, third, and fourth centuries, as
Irenxus, Clement the Alexandrian, Tertullian, Origen, Eusebius, &c.; and
their genuineness is proved by the testimony of those who were contemporary
with the apostles themselves. The four Gospels, and most of the other books of
the New Testament, were collected either by one of the apostles, or some of
their disciples and successors, before the end of the first century. The
catalogue of canonical books furnished by the more ancient Christian writers,
as Origen, about A.D. 210, Eusebius and Athanasius in 315, Epiphanius in 370,
Jerome in 382, austin in 394, and many others, agrees with that which is now
received among Christians.
See articles BIBLE, CHRISTIANITY, SCRIPTURES;
Blair's Canon of Scripture; Jones's Canonical authority of the New Test.; Michaelis's
Lect. on the New Test.; Du Pin's Canon of Script. v. 1.; Pridaux's Connections
v.1.; Dr. Owen on the Hebrews, Introd.
A person who possesses a prebend or revenue allotted for the performance of divine service in a cathedral or collegiate church. Canons are of no great antiquity. Paschier observes, that the name was not know before Charlemagne: at least, the first we hear of are in Gregory de Tours, who mentions a college of canons instituted by Baldwin XVI, archbishop of that city, in the time of Clotharius I. The common opinion attributes the institution of this order to Chrodegangus, bishop of Mentz, about the middle of the eighth century.
In an ecclesiastical sense, is a rule either of doctrine or discipline, enacted especially by a council, and confirmed by the authority of the sovereign. Canons are properly decisions of matters of religion, or regulations of the policy and discipline of a church made by councils, either general, national, or provincial; such are the canons of the council of Nice, of Trent, &c.
Are certain stated times of the day consigned more especially by the Romish church to the offices of prayer and devotion; such are matins, lauds, &c. In England the canonical hours are from eight to twelve in the forenoon; before or after which marriage cannot be legally performed in any church.
In the ancient church, were testimonials of the orthodox faith which the bishops and clergy sent each other to keep up the catholic communion, and distinguish orthodox Christians from heretics.
The rule of living prescribed by the ancient clergy who lived in community. The canonical life was a kind of medium between the monastic and clerical lives.
Is that submission which, by the ecclesiastical laws, the inferior clergy are to pay to their bishops, and the religious to their superiors.
A ceremony in the Romish church, by which
persons deceased are ranked in the catalogue of the saints. It succeeds
beatification. Before a beatified person is canonized, the qualifications of
the candidate are strictly examined into, in some consistories held for that
purpose; after which one of the consistorial advocates, in the presence of the
pope and cardinals, makes the panegvric of the person who is to be proclaimed a
saint, and gives a particular detail of his life and miracles; which being
done, the holy father decrees his canonization, and appoints the day.
On the day of canonization, the pope officiates
in white, and their eminences are dressed in the same colour. St. Peter's
church is hung with rich tapestry, upon which the arms of the pope, and of the
prince or state requiring the canonization, are embroidered in gold and silver.
A great number of lights blaze all round the church, which is crowded with
pious souls, who wait with devout impatience till the new saint has made his
public entry, as it were, into paradise, that they may offer up their petitions
to him without danger of being rejected.
The following maxim with regard to canonization
is now observed, though it has not been followed above a century, viz. not to
enter into the inquiries prior to canonization till fifty years, at least,
after the death of the person to be canonized. By the ceremony of canonization
it appears that this rite of the modern Romans has something in it very like the
apotheosis or deification of the ancient Romans, and in all probability takes
it rise from it; at least, several ceremonies of the same nature are
conspicuous in both.
Religious, of the order of St. Francis. They are clothed with brown or grey; always barefooted; never go in a coach, nor ever shave their beards.
A denomination which appeared in the twelfth century, so called from a singular kind of cap which distinguished their party. They wore upon their caps a leaden image of the Virgin Mary, and declared publicly that their purpose was to level all distinctions, to abrogate magistracy, and to remove all subordination among mankind, and to restore that primitive liberty, that natural equality, which were the inestimable privilege of the first mortals.
A Jewish sect, which adheres closely to the text and letter of the Scriptures, rejecting the rabbinical interpretations and the cabbala. The Talmud appearing in the beginning of the sixth century, those of the best sense among the Jews were disgusted at the ridiculous fables with which it abounded. But about the year 750, Anan, a Babylonish Jew, declared openly for the written word of God alone, exclusive of all tradition; and this declaration produced a schism. Those who maintained the Talmud being almost all rabbins, were called rabbinists; and the others, who rejected traditions, were called Caraites, or Scripturists, from the word cara, which in the Babylonish language signifies Scripture.
One of the chief governors of the Romish church, by whom the pope is elected out of their own number, which contains six bishops, fifty priests, and fourteen deacons: these constitute the sacred college, and are chosen by the pope. See POPE.
Justice, prudence, temperance, and fortitude, are called the four cardinal virtues, as being the basis of all the rest. See JUSTICE,&c.
Concern, or Anxiety of mind arising from the
uncertainty of something future, or the oppression of the present calamity.
Caution, attention to a particular subject; regard and support, when followed
with the particle of. Prudence signifies wisdom applied to practice; discretion
is the effect of prudence, and means a knowledge to govern or direct one's
self; by care we understand heed in order to preservation; caution implies a
greater degree of wariness.
Care is lawful when it consists in a serious
thought and earnest endeavour to please God; to embrace his Son, obey his
commands, submit to his providence, to promote our neighbours' temporal or
spiritual advantage, and to gain the goods of this life so far as necessary for
our health, family, comfort, and usefulness. It is sinful, when it leads us to
immoderate concern about earthly things, to be discontented with our lot, or to
make use of unlawful means to obtain worldly good; or when exercised in a way
of vain curiosity, John xxi. 22.
A term used for religion, or that serious attention we ought to pay to our best interests. It imports repentance, faith, devotion, and obedience. "It is considered as the one thing needful: as 1. It is matter of universal concern. 2. Of the highest importance. 3. Includes every thing worthy of our regard." 4. Essential to our peace here. 5. Without it we cannot obtain everlasting life, Luke x. 42. Jer. vi. 16. Heb. xii. 14.
Is his attention to and concern for the promotion of the welfare of his creatures, 1 Pet. v. 7. 1. That God does manifest this care is evident from the blessings we enjoy, the ordinances he has instituted, the promises he has given, and the provision he has made, Ps. lxxxiv. 11. Matt. vii. 12.--2. This care is entirely free, and unmerited on our part. Gen. xxxii. 10. Deut. vii. 6. Rom. iii. 23.--3. It is every way extensive, reaching to all his creatures and to all cases. Ps. cxlv.--4. It is superior to all human care and attention. He cares for us when others cannot; when others will not care for us; or when we cannot or will not care for ourselves. Ps. cxlii. 4,5. Jer. xlix. 11. Ps. xli. 3.--5. It is not only great, but perpetual. Through all the scenes of live, in death, and for ever. Heb. xiii. 5. John xvii. 9. See PROVIDENCE.
The followers of a noted impostor in the ninth century, who endeavoured to overthrow all the foundations of Mussulmanism. Carmath their prophet was a person of great austerity of life; and said that God had commanded him to pray not five times, with the Mussulmans, but fifty times a day. To comply with this, they often neglected their business; they ate many things forbidden by the law of Mahomet, and believed that angels were their guides in all their actions, and that the demons or ghosts are their enemies.
One of the four tribes of Mendicants, or begging friars; so named from Mount Carmel, formerly inhabited by Elias, Elisha, and the children of the prophets; from whom this order pretends to descend in uninterrupted succession. Their habit was at first white; but the pope Honorius IV. commanded them to change it for that of the Minims. They wear no linen shirts, but, instead of them, linsey-wolsey.
A branch of the ancient Gnostics, so called from Carpocrates, who in the second century revised and improved upon the errors of Simon Magus, Menender, Saturnius, and other Gnostics. See GNOSTICS.
A religious order founded A. D. 1080, by one Brudo; so called from the desert Chartreux, the place of their institution. Their rule is extremely severe. They must not go out of their cells, except to church, without leave of their superior; nor speak to any person without leave. They must not keep any meat or drink till next day: their beds are of straw covered with a felt; their clothing, two hair cloths, two cowls, two pair of hose, and a cloak; all coarse. In the refectory they must keep their eyes on the dish, their hands on the table, their attention to the reader, and their hearts fixed on God. Women must not come into their churches.
An event that is not foreseen or intended. See CONTINGENCY.
One that studies and settles cases of conscience. It is said that Escobar has made a collection of the opinions of all the casuists before him. M. Le Feore, preceptor of Louis XIII. called the books of the casuists the art of quibbling with God; which does not seem far from truth, by reason of the multitude of distinctions and sublicties they abound with. Mayer has published a bibliotheca of casuists, containing an account of all the writers on cases of conscience, ranged under three heads; at first comprehending the Lutheran, the second the Calvinist, and the third the Romish casuists.
The doctrine and science of conscience and its
cases, with the rules and principles of resolving the same; drawn partly from
natural reason or equity, and partly from the authority of Scripture, the canon
law, councils, fathers, &c. To casuistry belongs the decision of all
difficulties arising about what a man may lawfully do or not do; what is sin or
not sin; what things a man is obliged to do in order to discharge his duty, and
what he may let alone without breach of it.
Some suppose that all books of casuistry are as
useless as they are tiresome. One who is really anxious to do his duty must be
very weak, it said, if he can imagine that he has much occasion for them; and
with regard to one who is negligent of it, the style of those writings is not
such as is likely to awaken him to more attention. The frivolous accuracy which
casuists attempt to introduce into subjects which do not admit of it, almost
necessarily betray them into dangerous errors; and at the same time render
their works dry and disagreeable, abounding in abstruse and metaphysical
distinctions, but incapable of exciting in the heart any of those emotions
which it is the principal use of books of morality to produce.
On the other hand, I think it may be observed,
that, though these remarks may apply to some, they cannot apply to all books of
casuistry. It must be acknowledged that nice distinctions, metaphysical
reasonings, and abstruse terms, cannot be of much service to the generality,
because there are so few who can enter into them; yet, when we consider how
much light is thrown upon a subject by the force of good reasoning, by viewing
a case in all its bearings, by properly considering all the objections that may
be made to it, and by examining it in every point of view; if we consider also
how little some men are accustomed to think, and yet at the same time possess
that tenderness of conscience which makes them fearful of doing wrong; we must
conclude that such works as these, when properly executed, may certainly be of
considerable advantage. The reader may consult Ames's Power and Cases of
Conscience; Bishop Taylor's Cuctor Dubitantium; Dr. Saunderson's De Obligatione
Conscienteae; Pike and Hayward's Cases; and Saurin's Christian Casuistry, in
4th vol. of his Sermons, p. 265, English edition.
Instructing by asking questions and correcting the answers. Catechising is an excellent mean of informing the mind, engaging the attention, and affecting the heart, and is an important duty incumbent on all who have children under their care. Children should not be suffered to grow up without instruction, under the pretence that the choice of religion ought to be perfectly free, and not biased by the influence and authority of parents, or the power of education. As they have capacities, and are more capable of knowledge by instruction than by the exercise of their own reasoning powers, they should certainly be taught. This agrees both with the voice of nature and the dictates of revelation, Deut. vi. 7. Prov. xxii.6. Eph. vi. 4. The propriety of this being granted, it may next be observed, that, in order to facilitate their knowledge, short summaries of religion extracted from the Bible, in the way of question and answer, may be of considerable use. 1. Hereby, says Dr. Watts, the principles of Christianity are reduced into short sentences, and easier to be understood by children.--2. Hereby these principles are not only thrown into a just and easy method, but every part is naturally introduced by a proper question; and the rehearsal of the answer is made far easier to a child than it would be if the child were required to repeat the whole scheme of religion.--3. This way of teaching hath, something familiar and delightful in it because it looks more like conversation and dialogue.--4. The very curiosity of the young mind is awakened by the question to know what the answer will be; and the child will take pleasure in learning the answer by heart, to improve its own knowledge. See next article.
A form of instruction by means of questions and answers. There have been various catechisms published by different authors, but many of them have been but ill suited to convey instruction to juvenile minds. Catechisms for children should be so framed as not to puzzle and confound, but to let the beams of divine light into their minds by degrees. They should be accommodated as far as possible to the weakness of their understandings; for mere learning sentences by rote, without comprehending the meaning, will be but of little use. In this way they will know nothing but words: it will prove a laborious task, and not a pleasure; confirm them in a bad habit of dealing in sounds instead of ideas; and after all, perhaps create in them an aversion to religion itself. Dr Watts advises that different catechisms should be composed for different ages and capacities; the questions and answers should be short, plain, and easy; scholastic terms, and logical distinctions should be avoided; the most practical points of religion should be inserted and one or more well chosen texts of Scripture should be added to support almost every answer, and to prove the several parts of it. The doctor has admirably exemplified his own rules in the catechism he has composed for children at three or four years old; that for children at seven or eight; his assembly's catechism, proper for youth at twelve of fourteen; his preservative from the sins and follies of childhood; his catechism of Scripture names, and his historical catechism. These are superior to any I know, and which I cannot but ardently recommend to parents and all those who have the care and instruction of children.
One whose charge is to instruct by questions, or
to question the uninstructed concerning religion.
The catechists of the ancient churches were
usually ministers, and distinct of the bishops and prebyters; and had their
catechumena, or auditories, apart. But they did not constitute any distinct
order of the clergy, being chosen out of any order. The bishop himself
sometimes performed the office; at other times, presbyters, readers, or
deacons. It was his business to expose the folly of the pagan superstition, to
remove prejudices, and answer objections; to discourse on behalf of the
Christian docrines; and to give instruction to those who had not sufficient
knowledge to qualify them for baptism.
The lowest order of Christians in the primitive
church. They had some title to the common name of Christians, being a degree
above pagans and heretics, though not consummated by baptism. They were
admitted to the state of catechumens by the imposition of hands, and the sign
of the cross. The children of believing parents were admitted catechumens as soon
as ever they were capable of instruction; but at what age those of heathen
parents might be admitted is no so clear. As to the time of their continuance
in this state, there were no general rules fixed about it; but the practice
varied according to the difference of times and places, and the readiness and
proficiency of the catechumens themselves. There were four orders or degrees of
catechumens. The first were those instructed privately without the church, and
kept at a distance, for some time, from the privilege of entering the church,
to make them the more eager and desirous of it. The next degree were the
audientes, so called from their being admitted to hear sermons and the
Scriptures read in the church, but were not allowed to partake of the prayers.
The third sort of catechumens were the genu flectentes, so called because they
received imposition of hands kneeling. The fourth order was the competentes et
electi; denoting the immediate candidates for baptism, or such as were
appointed to be baptized the next approaching festival; before which, strict
examination was made into their proficiency, under the several stages of
catechetical exercises.
After examination, they were exercised for twenty
days together, and were obliged to fasting and confession. Some days before
baptism they went veiled; and it was customary to touch their ears, saying,
Ephatha, i.e. Be opened; as also to anoint their eyes with clay: both
ceremonies being in imitation of our Savour's practice, and intended to signify
to the catechumens their condition both before and after their admission into
the Christian church.
A sect that spread much in the Latin church in the twelfth century. Their religion resembled the doctrine of the Manichaeans and Gnostics (see those articles.) They supposed that matter was the source of evil; that Christ was not clothed with a real body; that baptism and the Lord's supper were useless institutions; with a variety of other strange notions.
The chief church of a diocese; a church wherein is a bishop's see. The word comes from "chair;" the name seems to have taken its rise from the manner of sitting in the ancient churches of assemblies of private Christians. In these the council, i.e. the elders and priests, were called Presbyterium; at their head was the bishop, who held the place of chairman, Cathedralis or Cathedraticus; and the presbyters, who sat on either side, also called by the ancient fathers Assessores Episcoporum. The episcopal authority did not reside in the bishop alone, but in all the presbytery, whereof the bishop was president. A cathedral, therefore, originally was different from what it is now; the Christians, till the time of Constantine, having no liberty to build any temple. By their churches they only meant assemblies; and by cathedrals, nothing more than consistories.
Denotes any thing that is universal or general. The rise of heresies induced the primitive Christian church to assume to itself the appellation of catholic, being a characteristic to distinguish itself from all sects, who, though they had party names, sometimes sheltered themselves under the name of Christians. The Romish church now distinguished itself by catholic in opposition to all who have separated from her communion, and whom she considers as heretics and schismatics, and herself only as the true and Christian church. In the strict sense of the word, there is no catholic church in being; that is, no universal Christian communion.
A religious order in the thirteenth century; so called from their founder, Peter de Meuron, afterwards raised to the pontificate under the name of Celestine V. The Celestins rose two hours after midnight to say matins; ate no flesh, except when sick; and often fasted. Their habit consisted of a white gown, a capuche, a black scapulary, and shirts of serge.
The state of unmarried persons. Celibate, or celibacy, is a word chiefly used in speaking of the single life of the popish clergy, or the obligation they are under to abstain from marriage. The church of Rome imposes an universal celibacy on all her clergy, from the pope to the lowest deacon and subdeacon. The advocates for this usage pretend that a vow of perpetual celibacy was required in the ancient church as a condition of ordination, even from the earliest apostolic ages. But the contrary is evident from numerous examples of bishops and archbishops who lived in a state of matrimony, without any prejudice to their ordination or their function. Neither our Lord nor his apostles laid the least restraint upon the connubial union: on the contrary, the Scriptures speak of it as honourable in all, without the least restriction as to persons. Heb. xiii.4. Matt. xix. 10,12. 1 Cor. vii. 2,9. St. Paul even assigns forbidding to marry as characteristic of the apostacy of the latter times, 1 Tim. iv. 3. The fathers, without making any distinction between clergy and laity, asserted the lawfulness of the marriage of all Christians. Marriage was not forbidden to bishops in the Eastern church till the close of the seventh century. Celibacy was not imposed on the Western clergy in general till the end of the eleventh century, though attempts had been made long before. Superstitious zeal for a sanctimonious appearance in the clergy seems to have promoted it at first; and crafty policy, armed with power, no doubt rivetted this clog on the sacerdotal order in later periods of the church. Pope Gregory VII. appears in this business to have had a view to separate the clergy as much as possible from all other interests, and to bring them into a total dependence upon his authority; to the end that all temporal power might in a high degree be subjugated to the papal jurisdiction. Forbidding to marry, therefore, has evidently the mark of the beast upon it. See MARRIAGE.
A place set apart for the burial of the dead. Anciently, none were buried in churches or churchyards: it was even unlawful to inter in cities, and the cemeteries were without the walls. Among the primitive Christians these were held in great veneration. It even appears from Eusebius and Tertullian, that in the early ages they assembled for divine worship in the cemeteries. Valerian seems to have confiscated the cemeteries and other places of divine worship; but they were restored again by Gallienus. As the martyrs were buried in these places, the Christians chose them for building churches on, when Constantine established their religion; and hence some derive the rule which still obtains in the church of Rome, never to consecrate an altar without putting under it the relics of some saint.
The act of judging and blaming others for their faults. Faithfulness in reproving another differs from censoriousness: the former arises from love to truth, and respect for the person; the latter is a disposition that loves to find fault. However just censure may be where there is blame, yet a censorious spirit or rash judging must be avoided. It is usurping the authority and judgment of God. It is unjust, uncharitable, mischievous, productive of unhappiness to ourselves, and often the cause of disorder and confusion in society. See RASH JUDGING.
A sect, in the first century, who espoused most of the opinions of Simon Magus and the Manichaeans. They asserted two principles, good and bad. The first they called the Father of Jesus Christ; the latter the Creator of the world. They denied the incarnation and the resurrection, and rejected the books of the Old Testament.
An assemblage of several actions, forms, and
circumstances, and solemn. Applied to religious services, it signifies the
external rites and manner wherein the ministers of religion perform their
sacred functions. In 1646, M. Ponce published a history of ancient ceremonies,
tracing the rise, growth, and introduction of each rite into the church, and
its gradual advancement to superstition. Many of them were borrowed from
Judaism, but more from paganism. Dr. Middleton has given a fine discourse on
the conformity between the pagan and popish ceremonies, which he exemplifies in
the use of incense, holy water, lamps and candles before the shrines of saints,
voltive gifts round the shrines of the deceased, &c. In fact, the altars,
images, crosses, processions, miracles, and legends, nay, even the very
hierarchy, pontificate, religious orders, &c. of the present Romans, he
shows, are all copied from their heathen ancestors. An ample and magnificent
representation in figures of the religious ceremonies and customs of all
nations in the world, designed by Picart, is added, with historical
explanations, and many curious dissertations.
It has been a question, whether we ought to use
such rites and ceremonies which are merely of human appointment. On one side it
has been observed that we ought not. Christ alone is King in his church: he
hath instituted such ordinances and forms of worship as he hath judged fit and
necessary; and to add to them seems, at least, to carry in it an imputation on
his wisdom and authority, and hath this unanswerable objection to it, that it
opens the door to a thousand innovations (as the history of the church of Rome
hath sufficiently shown,) which are not only indifferent in themselves, but
highly absurd, and extremely detrimental to religion. That the ceremonies were
numerous under the Old Testament dispensation is no argument; for, say they. 1.
We respect Jewish ceremonies, because God hath not appointed them.--2. The
Jewish ceremonies were established by the universal consent of the nation;
human ceremonies are not so.--3. The former were fit and proper for the
purposes for which they were appointed; but the latter are often the
contrary.--4. The institutor of the Jewish ceremonies provided for the expense
of it; but no provision is made by God to support human ceremonies, or what he
has not appointed.
These arguments seem very powerful; but on the
other side of it has been observed, that the desire of reducing religious
worship to the greatest possible simplicity, however rational it may appear in
itself, and abstractedly considered, will be considerably moderated in such as
bestow a moment's attention upon the imperfection and infirmities of human
nature in its present state. Mankind, generally speaking, have too little
elevation of mind to be much affected with those forms and methods of worship
in which there is nothing striking to the outward senses. The great difficulty
here lies in determining the length which it is prudent to go in the
accommodation of religious ceremonies to human infirmity; and the grand point is
to fix a medium in which a due regard may be shown to the senses and
imagination, without violating the dictates of right reason, or tarnishing the
purity of true religion. It has been said, that the Romish church has gone too
far in its condescension to the infirmities of mankind; and this is what the
ablest defenders of its motley worship have alleged in its behalf. But this
observation is not just; the church of Rome has not so much accommodated itself
to human weakness, as it has abused that weakness, by taking occasion from it
to establish an endless variety of ridiculous ceremonies, destructive of true
religion, and only adapted to promote the riches and despotism of the clergy,
and to keep the multitude still hood-winked in their ignorance and superstition.
How far a just antipathy to the church puppet-shows of the Papists has unjustly
driven some Protestant churches into the opposite extreme, is a matter that
certainly deserves a serious consideration. See Dr. Stennett's Ser. on
Conformity to the World; Robinson's Sermon on Ceremonies; Booth's Essay on the
Kingdom of Christ; Mosheim's Ecclesiastical History; with Mac Laine's Note,
vol. i. p. 203, quarto edit. Jones's Works, vol. 4, p. 267.
Ancient heretics, who denied the deity of Jesus Christ; so named from Cerinthus. They believed that he was a mere man, the son of Joseph and Mary; but that in his baptism a celestial virtue descended on him in the form of a dove; by means whereof he was consecrated by the Holy Spirit, made Christ, and wrought so many miracles; that, as he received it from heaven, it quitted him after his passion, and returned to the place whence it came; so that Jesus, whom they called a pure man, really died, and rose again; but that Christ, who was distinguished from Jesus, did not suffer at all. It was partly to refute this sect that St. John wrote his Gospel. They received the Gospel of St. Matthew, to countenance their doctrine of circumcision; but they omitted the genealogy. They discarded the epistles of St. Paul, because that apostle held circumcision abolished.
In the rabbinical style, is called Targum. There are three Chaldee paraphrases in Walton's Polyglot: viz. 1. of Onkelos;--2. of Jonathan, son of Uziel;--3. of Jerusalem. See BIBLE, sect. 19, and TARGUM.
The cup used to administer the wine in the sacrament, and by the Roman catholics in the mass. The use of the chalice, or communicating in both kinds, is by the church of Rome denied to the laity, who communicate only in one kind, the clergy alone being allowed the privilege of communicating in both kinds; in direct opposition to our Saviour's words--"Drink ye all of it."
A term we apply to events to denote that they happen without any necessary or foreknown cause. When we say a thing happens by chance, we mean no more than that its cause is unknown to us, and not, as some vainly imagine, that chance itself can be the cause of any thing. "The case of the painter," says Chambers, "who, unable to express the foam at the mouth of the horse he had painted, threw his sponge in despair at the piece, and by chance did that which he could not do before by design, is an eminent instance of what is called chance. Yet it is obvious all we here mean by chance, is, that the painter was not aware of the effect, or that he did not throw the sponge with such a view: not but that he actually did every thing necessary to produce the effect; insomuch that, considering the direction wherein he threw the sponge, together with its form and specific gravity, the colours wherewith it was smeared, and the distance of the hand from the piece, it was impossible, on the present system of things, that the effect should not follow."--The word, as it is often used by the unthinking, is vague and indeterminate--a mere name for nothing.
A lay officer under a bishop, who is judge of his court. In the first ages of the church the bishops had those officers, who were called church lawyers, and were bred up in the knowledge of the civil and canon law: their business was to assist the bishop in his diocese.--We read of no chancellors till Henry the Second's time; but that the king requiring the attendance of the bishops in his councils, it was thought necessary to substitute chancellors in their room for the despatch of business.
Is used for the vocal music of churches. In church history we meet with divers kinds of these; as, 1. Chant Ambrosian, established by St. Ambrose;--2. Chant Gregorian, introduced by pope Gregory the Great, who established schools of chanters, and corrected the church music. This, at first, was called the Roman song; afterwards the plain song; as the choir and people sing in unison.
The mass of matter supposed to be in confusion before it was divided by the Almighty into its proper classes and elements. It does not appear who first asserted the notion of a chaos. Moses, the earliest of all writers, derives the origin of this world from a confusion of matter, dark, void, deep, without form, which he calls TOHUBOHU; which is precisely the chaos of the Greek and barbarian philosophers. Moses goes no farther than the chaos, nor tells us whence its confused state; and where Moses stops, there precisely do all the rest.
A place of worship.--There are various kinds of chapels in Britain. 1. Domestic chapels, built by noblemen or gentlemen for private worship in their families.--2. Free chapels, such as are founded by kings of England. They are free from all episcopal jurisdiction, and only to be visited by the founder and his successors, which is done by the lord chancellor: yet the king may license any subject to build and endow a chapel, and by letters patent exempt it from the visitation of the ordinary.--3. Chapels in universities belonging to particular universities.--4. Chapels of ease, built for the ease of one or more parishioners that dwell too far from the church, and are served by inferior curates, provided for at the charge of the rector, or of such as have benefit by it, as the composition or custom is.--5. Parochial chapels, which differ from parish churches only in name: they are generally small, and the inhabitants within the district few. If there be a presentation ad ecclesiam instead of capellam, and an admission and institution upon it, it is no longer a chapel, but a church for themselves and families.--6. Chapels which adjoin to and are part of the church: such were formerly built by honourable persons as burying places.--7. The places of worship belonging to the Calvinistic and Arminian Methodists are also generally called chapels, though they are licensed in no other way than the meetings of the Protestant Dissenters.
A person who performs divine service in a
chapel, or is retained in the service of some family to perform divine service.
As to the origin of chaplains, some say the
shrines of relics were anciently covered with a kind of tent, cape, or capella,
i.e. little cape; and that hence the priests who had the care of them were
called chaplains. In time, these relics were reposited in a little church,
either contiguous to a larger, or separate from it; and the name capella, which
was given to the cover, was also given to the place where it was lodged; and
hence the priest who superintended it came to be called capellanus, or
chaplain.
According to a statute of Henry VIII. the persons
vested with a power of retaining chaplains, together with the number each is
allowed to qualify, are as follow: an archbishop eight; a duke or bishop six;
marquis or earl five; viscount four; baron, knight of the garter, or lord
chancellor, three: a duchess, marchioness, countess, baroness, the treasurer or
comptroller of the king's house, clerk of the closet, the king's secretary,
dean of the chapel, almoner, and master of the rolls, each of them two; chief
justice of the king's bench, and ward of the cinque ports, each one. All these
chaplains may purchase a license or dispensation, and take two benefices, with
cure of souls. A chaplain must be retained by letters testimonial under hand
and seal, for it is not sufficient that he serve as chaplain in the family.
In England there are forty-eight chaplains to the
king, who wait four each month, preach in the chapel, read the service to the
family, and to the king in his private oratory, and say grace in the absence of
the clerk of the closet. While in waiting, they have a table and attendance,
but no salary. In Scotland, the king has six chaplains with a salary of 50l.
each; three of them having in addition the deanery of the chapel royal divided
between them, making up above 100l. to each. Their only duty at present is to
say prayers at the election of peers for Scotland to sit in parliament.
A certain instrument of piety made use of by the papists. It is a string of beads, by which they measure or count the number of their prayers.
A community of ecclesiastics belonging to a cathedral or collegiate church. The chief or head of the chapter is the dean; the body consists of canons or prebendaries. The chapter has now no longer a place in the administration of the diocese during the life of the Bishop; but succeeds to the whole episcopal jurisdiction during the vacancy of the see.
1. a sermon preached by the bishop to his clergy;--2. Among the Dissenters, it is a sermon preached to a minister at his ordination, generally by some aged or respectable preacher.
One of the three grand theological graces, consisting in the love of God and our neighbour, or the habit or disposition of loving God with all our heart, and our neighbour as ourselves. "Charity," says an able writer, "consists not in speculative ideas of general benevolence floating in the head, and leaving the heart, as speculations often do, untouched and cold: neither is it confined to that indolent good nature which makes us rest satisfied with being free from inveterate malice, or ill will to our fellow creatures, without prompting us to be of service to any. True charity is an active principle. It is not properly a single virtue; but a disposition residing in the heart as a fountain; whence all the virtues of benignity, candour, forbearance, generosity, compassion, and liberality flow as so many native streams. From general good will to all, it extends its influence particularly to those with whom we stand in nearest connexion, and who are directly within the sphere of our good offices. From the country or community to which we belong, it descends to the smaller associates of neighbourhood, relations, and friends; and spreads itself over the whole circle of social and domestic life. I mean not that it imports a promiscuous undistinguishing affection which gives every man an equal title to our love. Charity, if we should endeavour to carry it so rare, would be rendered an impracticable virtue, and would resolve itself into mere words, without affecting the heart. True charity attempts not to shut our eyes to the distinction between good and bad men; nor to warm our hearts equally to those who befriend and those who injure us. It reserves our esteem for good men, and our complacency for our friends. Towards our enemies, it inspires forgiveness and humanity. It breathes universal candour and liberality of sentiment. It forms gentleness of temper, and dictates affability of manners. It prompts corresponding sympathics with them who rejoice, and them who weep. It teaches us to slight and despise no man. Charity is the comforter of the afflicted, the protector of the oppressed, the reconciler of differences, the intercessor for offenders. It is faithfulness in the friend, public spirit in the magistrate, equity and patience in the judge, moderation in the sovereign, and loyalty in the subject. In parents it is care and attention; in children it is reverence and submission. In a word, it is the soul of social life. It is the sun that enlivens and cheers the abodes of men; not a meteor which occasionally glares, but a luminary, which in its orderly and regular course dispenses a benignant influence." See Barrow's Works, vol. i. ser. 27,28. Blair's Ser. vol. iv. ser. 2; Scott's Ser. ser. 14; Tillotson's Ser. ser. 158; Paley's Mor. Phil. vol. i. p. 231; and articles BENEVOLENCE, LOVE.
A kind of spell, supposed by the ignorant to
have an irresistible influence, by means of the concurrence of some infernal
power, both on the minds, lives, and properties of those whom it has for its
object.
"Certain vain ceremonies," says Dr.
Doddridge, "which are commonly called charms, and seem to have no efficacy
at all for producing the effects proposed by them, are to be avoided; seeing if
there be indeed any real efficacy in them, it is generally probable they owe it
to some bad cause; for one can hardly imagine that God should permit good
angels in any extraordinary manner to interpose, or should immediately exert
his own miraculous power on trifling occasions, and upon the performance of
such idle tricks as are generally made the condition of receiving such
benefits."
Purity from fleshly lust. In men it is termed continence. See CONTINENCE. There is a chastity of speech, behaviour, and imagination, as well as of body. Grove gives us the following rules for the conservation of chastity.--1. To keep ourselves fully employed in labours either of the body or the mind: idleness is frequently the introduction to sensuality.--2. To guard the senses, and avoid every thing which may be an incentive to lust. Does the free use of some meats and drinks make the body ungovernable? Does reading certain books debauch the imagination and inflame the passions? Do temptations often enter by the sight? Have public plays, dancings, effeminate music, idle songs, loose habits, and the like, the same effect? He who resolves upon chastity cannot be ignorant what his duty is in all these and such like cases.--3. to implore the Divine Spirit, which is a spirit of purity; and by the utmost regard to his presence and operations to endeavour to retain him with us. Grove's Moral Philos. p. 2. sec. 6.
A sect which arose in Armenia in the seventh century. They are so called from the Armenian word chazus, which signifies a cross, because they were charged with adoring the cross.
Are deceitful practices, in defrauding, or endeavouring to defraud, another of his known right, by means of some artful device contrary to honesty. See HONESTY, JUSTICE.
A disposition of mind free from dejection. Opposed to gloominess. If we consider cheerfulness, says Addison, in three lights, with regard to ourselves, to those we converse with, and to the Great Author of our being, it will not a little recommend itself on each of these accounts. The man who is possessed of this excellent frame of mind is not only easy in his thoughts, but a perfect master of all the powers and faculties of his soul; his imagination is always clear, and his judgment undisturbed; his temper is even and unruffled, whether in action or in solitude. He comes with a relish to all those goods which Nature has provided for him, tastes all the pleasures of the creation which are poured about him, and does not feel the full weight of those evils which may befall him. See HAPPINESS, JOY.
Duties of, to parents. Dr. Doddridge observes, "1. That as children have received important favours from their parents, gratitude, and therefore virtue, requires that they should love them.--2. Considering the superiority of age, and the probable superiority of wisdom, which there is on the side of parents, and also how much the satisfaction and comfort of a parent depend on the respect shown him by his children, it is fit that children should reverence their parents.--3. It is fit that, while the parents are living, and the use of their understanding continued, their children should not ordinarily undertake any matter of great importance, without advising with them, or without very cogent reasons pursue it contrary to their consent.--4. As young people need some guidance and government in their minority, and as there is some peculiar reason to trust the prudence, care, and affection of a parent, preferable to any other person, it is reasonable that children, especially while in their minority, should obey their parents; without which neither the order of families, nor the happiness of the rising generation could be secured: nevertheless, still supposing that the commands of the parent are not inconsistent with the will of God.--5. Virtue requires that, if parents come to want, children should take care to furnish them with the necessaries of life, and, so far as their ability will permit, with the conveniences of it" Doddridge's Lectures, p. 241. vol. i. Paley's Mor. Phil. p. 372. vol. i.
(bishops of the country.) In the ancient church, when the dioceses became enlarged by the conversions of pagans in the country, and villages at a great distance from the city church, the bishops appointed themselves certain assistants, whom they called Chorepiscopi, because by their office they were bishops of the country. There have been great disputes among the learned concerning this order, some thinking that they were mere presbyters; others that there were two sorts, some that had received episcopal ordination, and some that were presbyters only; others think that they were all bishops.
Oil consecrated by the bishop, and used in the Romish and Greek churches in the administration of baptism, confirmation, ordination, and extreme unction.
The Lord and Saviour of mankind. He is called Christ, or Messiah, because he is anointed, sent, and furnished by God to execute his mediatorial office. See JESUS CHRIST.
By Dr. Johnson, is defined, "a professor of
the religion of Christ;" but in reality a Christian is more than a
professor of Christianity. He is one who imbibes the spirit, participates the
grace, and is obedient to the will of Christ.
The disciples and followers of Christ were first
denominated Christians at Antioch, A.D. 42. The first Christians distinguished
themselves in the most remarkable manner by their conduct and their virtues.
The faithful, whom the preaching of St. Peter had converted, hearkened
attentively to the exhortations of the apostles, who failed not carefully to
instruct them as persons who were entering upon an entire new life. They
attended the temple daily, doing nothing different from the other Jews, because
it was yet not time to separate from them. But they made a still greater
progress in virtue; for they said all that they possessed, and distributed
their goods to the wants of their brethren. The primitive Christians were not
only remarkable for the consistency of their conduct, but were also very
eminently distinguished by the many miraculous gifts and graces bestowed by God
upon them.
The Jews were the first and the most inveterate
enemies the Christians had. They put them to death as often as they had it in
their power; and when they revolted against the Romans, in the time of the
emperor Adrian, Barchochebas, who was at the head of that revolt, employed
against the Christians the most rigorous punishments to compel them to
blaspheme and renounce Jesus Christ. And we find that even in the third century
they endeavoured to get into their hands Christian women, in order to scourge
and stone them in their synagogues. They cursed the Christians three times a
day in their synagogues; and their rabbins would not suffer them to converse
with Christians upon any occasion; nor were they contented to hate and detest
them, but they dispatched emissaries all over the world to defame the
Christians and spread all sorts of calumnies against them. They accused them
among other things, of worshipping the sun, and the head of an ass; they
reproached them with idleness and being a useless set of people. They charged
them with treason, and endeavouring to erect a new monarchy against that of the
Romans. They affirmed that in celebrating their mysteries, they used to kill a
child, and eat his flesh. They accused them of the most shocking incests, and
of intemperance in their feasts of charity. But the lives and behaviour of the
first Christians were sufficient to refute all that was said against them, and
evidently demonstrated that these accusations were mere calumny, and the effect
of inveterate malice. Pliny the Younger, who was governor of Pontus and
Bithynia between the years 103 and 105, gives a very particular account of the
Christians in that province, in a letter which he wrote to the emperor Trajan,
of which the following is an extract: "I count of every difficulty which
arises to me: I had never been present at the examinations of the Christians;
for which reason I know not what questions have been put to them, nor in what
manner they have been punished. My behaviour towards those who have been
accused to me has been this; I have interrogated them, in order to know whether
they were really Christians. When they have confessed it, I have repeated the
same question two or three times, threatening them with death if they did not
renounce this religion. Those who have persisted in their confession have been
by my order led to punishment. I have even met with some Roman citizens guilty
of this phrenzy, whom, in regard to their quality, I have set apart from the
rest, in order to send them to Rome. These persons declare that their whole
crime, if they are guilty, consists in this: That on certain days they assemble
before sun-rise, to sing alternately the praises of Christ, as of God; and to
oblige themselves, by the performance of their religious rites, not to be
guilty of theft or adultery, to observe inviolably their word, and to be true
to their trust. This disposition has obliged me to endeavour to inform myself
still farther of this matter, by putting to the torture two of their women
servants, whom they called deaconesses; but I could learn nothing more from
them than that the superstition of these people is as ridiculous as their
attachment to it is astonishing."
It is easy to discover the cause of the many
persecutions to which the Christians were exposed during the first three
centuries. The purity of the Christian morality, directly opposite to the
corruption of the pagans, was doubtless one of the most powerful motives of the
public aversion. To this may be added the many calumnies unjustly spread about
concerning them by their enemies, particularly the Jews; and this occasioned so
strong a prejudice against them, that the pagans condemned them without
enquiring into their doctrine, or permitting them to defend themselves.
Besides, their worshipping Jesus Christ as God, was contrary to one of the most
ancient laws of the Roman empire, which expressly forbade the acknowledging of
any God which had not been approved of by the senate. But, notwithstanding the
violent opposition made to the establishment of the Christian religion, it
gained ground daily and very soon made surprising progress in the Roman empire.
In the third century there were Christians in the senate, in the camp, in the
palace; in short every where but in the temple and the theatres; they filled
the towns, the country, the island. Men and women of all ages and conditions,
and even those of the first dignities, embraced the faith; insomuch that the
pagans complained that the revenues of their temples were ruined. They were in
such great numbers in the empire, that (as Tertullian expresses it) were they
to have retired into another country, they would have left the Romans only
afrightful solitude. For persecutions of the Christians, see article
PERSECUTION.
Christians may be considered as nominal and real.
There are vast numbers who are called Christians, not because they possess any
love for Christ, but because they happen to be born in a Christian country,
educated by Christian parents, and sometimes attend Christian worship. There
are also many whose minds are well informed respecting the Christian system,
who prefer it to every other, and who make an open profession of it; and yet,
after all, feel but little of the real power of Christianity. A real Christian
is one whose understanding is enlightened by the influences of divine grace,
who is convinced of the depravity of his nature, who sees his own inability to
help himself, who is taught to behold God as the chief good, the Lord Jesus as
the only way to obtain felicity, and that the Holy Spirit is the grand agent in
applying the blessings of the Gospel to his soul. His heart is renovated, and
inclined to revere, honour, worship, trust in, and live to God. His affections
are elevated above the world, and centre in God alone. He embraces him as his
portion, loves him supremely, and is zealous in the defence and support of his
cause. His temper is regulated, his powers roused to vigorous action, his
thoughts spiritual, and his general deportment amiable and uniform. In fine,
the true Christian character exceeds all others as much as the blaze of the
meridian sun outshines the feeble light of the glow-worm.
A sect of Christians very numerous in Balfara, and the neighbouring towns: they formerly inhabited along the river Jordan, where St. John baptized, and it was from thence they had their name. They hold an anniversary feast of five days, during which they all go to the bishop, who baptizes them with the baptism of St. John. Their baptism is also performed in rivers, and that only on Sundays: they have no notion of the third person in the Trinity; nor have they any canonical book, but abundance full of charms, &c. Their bishoprics descend by inheritance as our estates do, though they have the ceremony of an election.
A sort of Christians in a peninsula of India on
this side the gulf; they inhabit chiefly at Cranganor, and the neighbouring
country; these admit of no images, and receive only the cross, to which they
pay a great veneration. They affirm, that the souls of the saints do not see
God till after the day of judgment; they acknowledge but three sacraments, viz.
baptism, orders, and the eucharist; they make no use of holy oils in the
administration of baptism, but after the ceremony, anoint the infant with an
unction composed of oil and walnuts, without any benediction. In the eucharist
they consecrate with little cakes made of oil and salt, and instead of wine
make use of water in which raisins have been infused.
In the Asiatic Researches of the Society
instituted in Bengal, may be found an enlarged account of the Christians of St.
Thomas, which was laid before that society by F. Wrede, Esq. See also Monthly
Magazine for 1804, p. 60. and Dr. Kerr's Report to Lord Behtich, on the state
of the Christians inhabiting the kingdom of Cochin and Travancore. Evang. Mag.
1807. p. 473.
The religion of Christians.
I. Christianity, foundation of. Most, if not all
Christians, whatever their particular tenets may be, acknowledge the Scriptures
of the Old and New Testaments as the sole foundation of their faith and
practice. But as these books, or at least particular passages in them, have
from the ambiguity of language been variously interpreted by different
commentators, these diversities have given birth to a multiplicity of different
sects. These, however, or at least the greatest number of them, appeal to the
Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments as the ultimate standard, the only
infallible rule of faith and manners. If asked by what authority these books
claim an absolute right to determine the consciences and understandings of men
with regard to what they should believe, and what they should do, they answer,
that all Scripture, whether for doctrine, correction, or reproof, was given by
immediate inspiration from God. If again interrogated how those books which
they call Scripture are authenticated, they reply, that the Old and New
Testaments are proved to be the word of God, by evidences both external and
internal. See $ 2. and article REVELATION.
II. Christianity, evidences of the truth of. The
external evidences of the authenticity and divine authority of the Scriptures
have been divided into direct and colleteral. The direct evidences are such as
arise from the nature, consistency, and probability of the facts; and from the
simplicity, uniformity, competency, and fidelity of the testimonies by which
they are supported. The collateral evidences are either the same occurrences
supported by heathen testimonies, or others which concur with and corroborate
the history of Christianity. Its internal evidences arise either from its exact
conformity with the character of God, from its aptitude to the frame and
circumstances of man, or from those supernatural convictions and assistances
which are impressed on the mind by the immediate operation of the Divine
Spirit. We shall here chiefly follow Dr. Doddridge, and endeavour to give some
of the chief evidences which have been brought forward, and which every
unprejudiced mind must confess are unanswerable.
First. Taking the matter merely in theory, ti
will appear highly probable that such a system as the Gospel should be, indeed,
a divine revelation.
1. The case of mankind is naturally such as to
need a divine revelation, 1 John v. 19. Rom. i. Eph. iv.--2. There is from the
light of nature considerable encouragement to hope that God would favour his
creatures with so needful a blessing as a revelation appears.--3. We may easily
conclude, that if a revelation were given, it would be introduced and
transmitted in such a manner as Christianity is said to have been.--4. That the
main doctrines of the Gospel are of such a nature as we might in general
suppose those of a divine revelation would be; rational, practical, and
sublime, Heb. xi. 6. Mark xii. 20. 1 Tim. ii. 5. Matt. v. 48. Matt. x.
29,30.Philippians iv. 8. Romans ii. 6,40.
Secondly. It is, in fact, certain that
Christianity is indeed, a divine revelation; for, I. The books of the New
Testament, now in our hands, were written by the first preachers and publishers
of Christianity. In proof of this, observe, 1. that is certain that
Christianity is not a new religion, but that it was maintained by great
multitudes quickly after the time in which Jesus is said to have appeared.--2.
That there was certainly such a person as Jesus of Nazareth, who was crucified
at Jerusalem, when Pontius Pilate was governor there.--3. The first publishers
of this religion wrote books which contained an account of the life and
doctrine of Jesus, their master, and which went by the name of those that now
make up our New Testament.--4. That the books of the New Testament have been
preserved, in the main, uncorrupted to the present time, in the original
language in which they were written.--5. That the translation of them now in
our hands may be depended upon as, in all things most material, agreeable to
the original. Now, II. From allowing the New Testament to be genuine, according
to the above proof, it will certainly follow that Christianity is a divine
revelation; for, in the first place, it is exceedingly evident that the writers
of the New Testament certainly knew whether the facts were true or false. John
i. 3. John xix. 27,35. Acts xxvii. 7, 9.--2. That the character of these
writers, so far as we can judge by their works, seems to render them worthy of
regard, and leaves no room to imagine they intended to deceive us. The manner
in which they tell their story is most happily adapted to gain our belief.
There is no air of declamation and harangue; nothing that looks like artifice
and design: no apologies, no encomiums, no characters, no reflections, no
digressions; but the facts are recounted with great simplicity, just as they
seem to have happened; and those facts are left to speak for themselves.--Their
integrity likewise evidently appears in the freedom with which they mention
those circumstances which might have exposed their Master and themselves to the
greatest contempt amongst prejudiced and inconsiderate men, such as they knew
they must generally expect to meet with. John i.45,46. John vii. 52. Luke ii.
4,7. Mark vi. 3. Matt. viii. 20. John vii. 48. It is certain that there are in
their writings the most genuine traces not only of a plain and honest, but a
most pious and devout, a most benevolent and generous disposition, as every one
must acknowledge who reads their writings.--3. the apostles were under no
temptation to forge a story of this kind, or to publish it to the world knowing
it to be false.--4. Had they done so, humanly speaking, they must quickly have
perished in ti, and their foolish cause must have died with them, without ever
gaining any credit in the world. Reflect more particularly on the nature of
those grand facts, the death, resurrection, and exaltation of Christ, which
formed the great foundation of the Christian scheme, as first exhibited by the
apostles. The resurrection of a dead man, and his ascension into an abode in
the upper world, were such strange things, that a thousand objections would
immediately have been raised against them; and some extraordinary proof would
have been justly required as a balance to them. Consider the manner in which
the apostles undertook to prove the truth of their testimony to these facts;
and it will evidently appear, that, instead of confirming their scheme, it must
have been sufficient utterly to have overthrown it, had it been itself the most
probable imposture that the wit of man could ever have contrived. See Acts iii.
ix. xiv, xix, &c. They did not merely assert that they had seen miracles
wrought by Jesus, but that he had endowed them with a variety of miraculous
powers; and these they undertook to display not in such idle and useless tricks
as slight of hand might perform, but in such solid and important works as
appeared worthy of divine interposition, and entirely superior to human power.
Nor were these things undertaken in a corner, in a circle of friends or
dependants; nor were they said to be wrought, as might be suspected, by any
confederates in the fraud; but they were done often in the most public manner.
Would impostors have made such pretensions as these? or, if they had, must they
not immediately have been exposed and ruined? Now, if the New Testament be
genuine, then it is certain that the apostles pretend to have wrought miracles
in the very presence of those to whom their writings were addressed; nay, more
they profess likewise to have conferred those miraculous gifts in some
considerable degrees on others, even on the very persons to whom they write,
and they appeal to their consciences as to the truth of it. And could there
possibly be room for delusion here?--5. It is likewise certain that the
apostles did gain early credit, and succeeded in a most wonderful manner. This
is abundantly proved by the vast number of churches established in early ages
at Rome, Corinth, Ephesus, Collosse, &c.&c.&c.--6. That, admitting
the facts which they testified concerning Christ to be true, then it was
reasonable for their contempories, and is reasonable for us, to receive the
Gospel which they have transmitted to us as a divine revelation. The great
thing they asserted was, that Jesus was the Christ, and that he was proved to
be so by prophecies accomplished in him, and by miracles wrought by him, and by
others in his name. If we attend to these, we shall find them to be no contemptible
arguments; but must be forced to acknowledge, that, the premises being
established, the conclusion most easily and necessarily follows; and this
conclusion, that Jesus is the Christ, taken in all its extent, is an abstract
of the Gospel revelation, and therefore is sometimes put for the whole of it,
Acts viii. 37. Acts xvii. 18. See Articles MIRACLE and PROPHECY.--7. The truth
of the Gospel has also received farther and very considerable confirmation from
what has happened in the world since it was first published. And here we must
desire every one to consider what God has been doing to confirm the Gospel
since its first publication, and he will find it a farther evidence of its
Divine original. We might argue at large from its surprising propagation in the
world; from the miraculous powers with which not only the apostles, but
succeeding preachers of the Gospel, and other converts, were endowed; from the
accomplishment of prophesies recorded in the New Testament; and from the
preservation of the Jews as a distinct people, notwithstanding the various
difficulties and persecutions through which they have passed. We must not,
however, forget to mention the confirmation it receives from the methods which
its enemies have taken to destroy it; and these have generally been either
persecution or falsehood, or cavilling at some particulars in revelation,
without entering into the grand argument on which it is built, and fairly
debating what is offered in its defence. The cause has gained considerably by
the opposition made to it: the more it has been tried, the more it has been
approved: and we are bold to say no honest man, unfettered by prejudice, can
examine this system in all its parts, without being convinced that its origin
is divine.
III. Christianity, general doctrines of. "It
must be obvious," says an ingenious author, "to every reflecting
mind, that, whether we attempt to form the idea of any religion a priori, or
contemplate those which have already been exhibited, certain facts, principles,
or data, must be pre-established; from whence will result a particular frame of
mind and course of action suitable to the character and dignity of that Being
by whom the religion is enjoined, and adapted to the nature and situation of
those agents, who are commanded to observe it. Hence Christianity may be
divided into credenda or doctrines, and agenda or precepts. As the great
foundation of his religion, therefore, the Christian believes the existence and
government of one eternal and infinite Essence, which for ever retains in
itself the cause of its own existence, and inherently possesses all those
perfections which are compatible with its nature; such are its almighty power,
omniscience, wisdom, infinite justice, boundless goodness, and universal
presence. In this indivisible essence the Christian recognises three distinct
subsistences, yet distinguished in such a manner as not to be incompatible
either with essential unity, or simplicity of being, or with their personal
distinction; each of them possesses the same nature and properties to the same
extent. This infinite Being was graciously pleased to create an universe
replete with intelligences, who might enjoy his glory, participate his
happiness, and imitate his perfections. But as these beings were not immutable,
but left to the freedom of their own will, degeneracy took place, and that in a
rank of intelligence superior to man. But guilt is never stationary. Impatient
of itself, and cursed with its own feelings, it proceeds from bad to worse,
whilst the poignancy of its torments increases with the number of its
perpetrations. Such was the situation of Satan and his apostate angels. They
attempted to transfer their turpitude and misery to man, and were, alas, but
too successful! Hence the heterogeneous and irreconcilable principles which
operate in his nature; hence that inexplicable medley of wisdom and folly, of
rectitude and error, of benevolence and malignity, of sincerity and fraud,
exhibited through his whole conduct; hence the darkness of his understanding,
the depravity of his will, the pollution of his heart, the irregularity of his
affections, and the absolute subversion of his whole internal economy. The
seeds of perdition soon ripened into overt acts of guilt and horror. All the
hostilities of nature were confronted, and the whole sublunary creation became
a theatre of disorder and mischief. Here the Christian once more appeals to
fact and experience. If these things are so; if man be the vessel of guilt, and
the victim of misery, he demands how this constitution of things can be
accounted for? how can it be supposed that a being so wicked and unhappy should
be the production of an infinitely good and infinitely perfect Creator? He
therefore insists that human nature must have been disarranged and contaminated
by some violent shock; and that, of consequence, without the light diffused
over the face of things by Christianity, all nature must remain in inscrutable
and inexplicable mystery. To redress these evils, to re-establish the empire of
rectitude and happiness, to restore the nature of man to its primitive dignity,
to satisfy the remonstrances of infinite justice, to purify every original or
contracted stain, to expiate the guilt and destroy the power of vice, the
eternal Son of God, from whom Christianity takes its name, and to whom it owes
its origin, descended from the bosom of his Father, assumed the human nature,
became the representative of man; endured a severe probation in that character;
exhibited a pattern of perfect righteousness, and at last ratified his
doctrine, and fully accomplished all the ends of his mission, by a cruel,
unmerited, and ignominious death. Before he left the world, he delivered the
doctrines of salvation, and the rules of human conduct, to his apostles, whom
he empowered to instruct the world in all that concerned their eternal
felicity, and whom he invested with miraculous gifts to ascertain the reality
of what they taught. To them he likewise promised another comforter, even the
Divine Spirit, who should remove the darkness, console the woes, and purify the
stains of human nature. Having remained for a part of three days under the
power of death, he rose again from the grave; appeared to his disciples, and
many others; conversed with them for some time, then re-ascended to heaven;
from whence the Christian expects him, according to his promise, to appear as
the Sovereign Judge of the living, and the dead, from whose awards there is no
appeal, and by whose sentence the destiny of the righteous and the wicked shall
be eternally fixed. Soon after his departure to the right hand of his Father
(where in his human nature he sits supreme of all created beings, and invested
with the absolute administration of heaven and earth,) the Spirit of grace and
consolation descended on his apostles with visible signatures of divine power
and presence. Nor were his salutary operations confined to them, but extended
to all who did not by obstinate guilt repel his influences. These, indeed, were
less conspicuous than at the glorious aera when they were visibly exhibited in
the persons of the apostles. But, though his energy be less observable, it is
by no means less effectual to all the purposes of grace and mercy. The
Christian is convinced that there is and shall continue to be a society upon
earth, who worship God as revealed in Jesus Christ, who believe his doctrines,
who observe his precepts, and who shall be saved by the merits of his death, in
the use of these external means of salvation which he hath appointed. He also
believes that the sacraments of baptism and the Lord's supper, the
interpretation and application of Scripture, the habitual exercise of public
and private devotion, are obviously calculated to diffuse and promote the
interests of truth and religion by superinducing the salutary habits of faith,
love, and repentance. He is firmly persuaded, that, at the consummation of all
things, when the purposes of Providence in the various revolutions of
progressive nature are accomplished, the whole human race shall once more issue
from their graves; some to immortal felicity in the actual perception and
enjoyment of their Creator's presence, and others to everlasting shame and
misery."
IV. Christianity, morality and superiority of. It
has been well observed, "that the two grand principles of action,
according to the Christian, are the love of God, which is the sovereign passion
in every gracious mind; and the love of man, which regulates our actions
according to the various relations in which we stand, whether to communities or
individuals. This sacred connection ought never to be totally extinguished by
any temporary injury. It ought to subsist in some degree even amongst enemies.
It requires that we should pardon the offences of others, as we expect pardon
for our own; and that we should no farther resist evil than is necessary for
the preservation of personal rights and social happiness. It dictates every
relative and reciprocal duty between parents and children, masters and
servants, governors and subjects, friends and friends, men and men: nor does it
merely enjoin the observation of equity, but likewise inspires the most sublime
and extensive charity; a boundless and disinterested effusion of tenderness for
the whole species, which feels their distress, and operates for their relief
and improvement."
"Christianity," it has also been
observed (and with the greatest propriety,) "is superior to all other
religions. The disciple of Jesus not only contends that no system of religion
has ever yet been exhibited so consistent with itself, so congruous to
philosophy and the common sense of mankind, as Christianity: he likewise avers
that it is infinitely more productive of real consolation than all other
religious or philosophical tenets which have ever entered into the soul, or been
applied to the heart of man. For what is death to that mind which considers
eternity as the career of its existence? What are the frowns of men to him who
claims an eternal world as his inheritance? What is the loss of friends to that
heart which feels, with more than natural conviction, that it shall quickly
rejoin them in a more tender, intimate, and permanent intercourse, than any of
which the present life is susceptible? What are the vicissitudes of external
things to a mind which strongly and uniformly anticipates a state of endless
and immutable felicity? What are mortifications, disappointments, and insults,
to a spirit which is conscious of being the original offspring and adopted
child of God: which knows that its omnipotent Father will in proper time
effectually assert the dignity and privileges of its nature? In a word, as this
earth is but a speck in the creation, as time is not an instant in proportion
to eternity, such are the hopes and prospects of the Christian in comparison of
every sublunary misfortune or difficulty. It is therefore, in his judgement,
the eternal wonder of angels, and indelible opprobrium of man, that a religion
so worthy of God, so suitable to the frame and circumstances of our nature, so
consonant to all the dictates of reason, so friendly to the dignity and
improvement of intelligent beings, so pregnant with genuine comfort and
delight, should be rejected and despised by any of the human race."
V. Christianity, propagation and success of.
Despised as Christianity has been by many, yet it has had an extensive progress
through the world, and still remains to be professed by great numbers of
mankind; though it is to be lamented many are unacquainted with its genuine
influence. It was early and rapidly propagated through the whole Roman empire,
which then contained almost the whole known world: and herein we cannot but
admire both the wisdom and the power of God. "Destitute of all human
advantages," says a good writer, "protected by no authority, assisted
by no art; not recommended by the reputation of its author, not enforced by
eloquence in its advocates, the word of God grew mightily and prevailed. Twelve
men, poor, artless, and illiterate, we behold triumphing over the fiercest and
most determined opposition; over the tyranny of the magistrate, and the
subtleties of the philosopher; over the prejudices of the Gentile, and the
bigotry of the Jew. They established a religion which held forth high and
venerable mysteries, such as the pride of man would induce him to suspect,
because he could not perfectly comprehend them; which preached doctrines pure
and spiritual, such as corrupt nature was prone to oppose, because it shrunk
from the severity of their discipline; which required its followers to renounce
almost every opinion they had embraced as sacred, and every interest they had
pursued as important; which even exposed them to every species of danger and
infamy; to persecution unmerited and unpitied; to the gloom of a prison, and to
the pangs of death. Hopeless as this prospect might appear to the view of
short-sighted man, the Gospel yet emerged from the obscurity in which it was
likely to be overwhelmed by the complicated distresses of its friends, and the
unrelenting cruelty of its foes. It succeeded in a peculiar degree, and in a
peculiar manner; it derived that success from truth, and obtained it under
circumstances where falsehood must have been detected and crushed."
"Although," says the elegant Porteus,
"Christianity has not always been so well understood, or so honestly
practised, as it ought to have been; although its spirit has been often
mistaken, and its precepts misapplied, yet, under all these disadvantages, it
has gradually produced a visible change in those points which most materially
concern the peace and quiet of the world. Its beneficent spirit has spread
itself through all the different relations and modifications of life, and
communicated its kindly influence to almost every public and private concern of
mankind. It has insensibly worked itself into the inmost frame and constitution
of civil states. It has given a tinge to the temper and administration of their
laws. It has restrained the spirit of the prince and the madness of the people.
It has softened the rigour of despotism, and tamed the insolence of conquest.
It has in some degree taken away the edge of the sword, and thrown even over
the horrors of war a veil of mercy. It has descended into families, has
diminished the pressure of private tyranny; improved every domestic endearment;
given tenderness to the parent, humanity to the master, respect to superiors,
to inferiors ease; so that mankind are, upon the whole, even in a temporal
view, under infinite obligations to the mild and pacific temper of the Gospel,
and have reaped from it more substantial worldly benefits than from substantial
worldly benefits than from any other institution upon earth. As one proof of
this (among many others,) consider only the shocking carnage made in the human
species by the exposure of infants, the gladiatorial shows, which sometimes
cost Europe twenty or thirty thousand lives in a month; and the exceedingly
cruel usage of slaves, allowed and practised by the ancient pagans. These were
not the accidental and temporary excesses of a sudden fury, but were legal and
established, and constant methods of murdering and tormenting mankind. Had
Christianity done nothing more than brought into disuse (as it confessedly has
done) the two former of these human customs, entirely, and the latter to a very
great degree, it had justly merited the title of the benevolent religion: but
this is far from being all. Throughout the more enlightened parts of
Christendom there prevails a gentleness of manners widely different from the
ferocity of the most civilized nations of antiquity; and that liberality with
which every species of distress is relieved, is a virtue peculiar to the
Christian name."
But we may ask farther, what success has it had
on the mind of man, as it respects his eternal welfare? How many thousands have
felt its power, rejoiced in its benign influence, and under its dictates been
constrained to devote themselves to the glory and praise of God? Burdened with
guilt, incapable of finding relief from human resources, the mind has here
found peace unspeakable, in beholding, that sacrifice which alone could atone
for transgression. Here the hard and impenitent heart has been softened, the
impetuous passions restrained, the ferocious temper subdued, powerful
prejudices conquered, ignorance dispelled, and the obstacles to real happiness
removed. Here the Christian, looking round on the glories and blandishments of
this world, has been enabled with a noble contempt to despise all. Here death
itself, the king of terrors, has lost its sting; and the soul, with an holy
magnanimity, has borne up in the agonies of a dying hour, and sweetly sung
itself away to everlasting bliss.
In respect to its future spread, we have reason
to believe that all nations shall feel its happy effects. The prophecies are
pregnant with matter as to this belief. It seems that not only a nation or a
country, but the whole habitable globe, shall become the kingdom of our Lord
and of his Christ: and who is there that has ever known the excellency of this
system; who is there that has ever experienced its happy efficacy; who is there
that has ever been convinced of its divine origin, its delightful nature, and
peaceful tendency, but what must join the benevolent and royal poet in saying,
"Let the whole earth be filled with its glory, amen, and amen."
See article CHRISTIANITY in Enc. Brit.; Paley's
Evidences of Christianity; Lardner's and Macknight's Credibility of the Gospel
History; Lord Hailes on the Influence of Gibbon's Five Causes; Fawcett's
Evidences of Christianity; Doddridge's ditto; Fell's and Hunter's Lectures on
ditto; Beattie's Evidences of the Christian Religion; Soame Jenyns's Evidences
of ditto; White's Sermons; Bp. Porteus's Sermons, vol. i. ver. 12,13; and his
Essay on the beneficial Effects of Christianity on the temporal Concerns of
Mankind.
The day on which the nativity of our blessed
Saviour is celebrated.
The first footsteps we find of the observation of
this day are in the second century, about the time of the Emperor Commodus. The
decretal epistles, indeed, carry it up a little higher, and say that
Telesphorus, who lived in the reign of Antoninus Pius, ordered divine service
to be celebrated, and an angelic hymn to be sung the night before the nativity
of our Saviour. That it was kept before the time of Constantine we have a
melancholy proof; for whilst the persecution raged under Dioclesian, who then
kept his court at Nicomedia,that tyrant among other acts of cruelty, finding
the multitudes of Christians assembled together to celebrate Christ's nativity,
commanded the church doors where they were met to be shut, and fire to be put
to it, which soon reduced them and the church to ashes. See HOLYDAY.
The science of computing and adjusting the periods of time, referring each event to the proper year. We have not room here to present the reader with a system of chronology; but should he be desirous of studying this science, he may consult the systems of Cluviar, Calvisius, Usher, Simson, Bedford, Marshman, Blair, Playfair, and Dr. Hales.
1. The Greek word denotes an assembly met about
business, whether lawful or unlawful, Acts xix. 32, 39.--2. It is understood of
the collective body of Christians, or all those over the face of the earth who
profess to believe in Christ, and acknowledge him to be the Saviour of mankind:
this is called the visible church, Eph. iii. 21. 1 Tim. iii. 15. Eph. iv.
11,12.--3. By the word church, also, we are to understand the whole body of
God's chosen people, in every period of time: this is the invisible church.
Those on earth are also called the militant, and those in heaven the triumphant
church, Heb. xii. 23. Acts xx. 28. Eph. i. 22. Matt. xvi. 28.--4. By a
particular church we understand an assembly of Christians united together, and
meeting in one place for the solemn worship of God. To this agree the
definition given by the compilers of the thirty-nine articles:--"A congregation
of faithful men, in which the true word of God is preached, and the sacraments
duly administered according to Christ's ordinances, in all those things that of
necessity are requisite to the same." Acts ix. 31. Gal. i. 2,22. 1 Cor.
xiv. 34. Acts xx. 17. Col. iv. 15.--5. The word is now used also to denote any
particular denomination of Christians distinguished by particular doctrines,
ceremonies,&c.: as the Romish church, Greek church. and English church,
&c.
Congregational church is so called from their
maintaining that each congregation of Christians which meet in one place for
religious worship is a complete church, and has sufficient power to act and
perform every thing relative to religious government within itself, and is in
no respect subject or accountable to any other church. It does not appear, say
they, that the primitive churches were national; they were not even provincial;
for, though there were many believers and professing Christians in Judea, in
Galilee, and Samaria, in Macedonia, in Galatia, and other provinces, yet we
never read of a provincial church in any of those places. The particular
societies of Christians in these districts are mentioned in the plural number,
2 Cor. viii. 1. Gal. i. 2. Acts ix. 31. According to them, we find no mention
made of diocesan churches in the New Testament. In the days of the apostles,
bishops were so far from presiding over more churches than one, that sometimes
a plurality of bishops presided over the same church. See Phil. i. 1. Nor do we
find any mention made of parochial churches. Some of the inhabitants of a
parish may be Infidels, Mahometans, or Jews; but Gospel churches consist of
such as make an open profession of their faith in Christ, and subjection to the
Gospel, Rom.i.7. 1 Cor. xiv. 33. It seems plain, then, that the primitive
churches of Christ were properly congregational. The first church at Jerusalem
met together in one place at the same time, Acts i. 14,15. The church of
Antioch did the same, Acts xiv. 27. The church of Corinth the same, 1 Cor. xiv.
23. The same did the church at Troas, Acts xx. 7. There was a church at
Cenchrea, a port of Corinth, distinct from the church in that city, Rom. xvi.
He that was a member of one church was not a member of another. The apostle
Paul, writing to the Colossian society, says--"Epaphras, who is one of
you, saluteth you, " Col. iv. 12.
Such a church is a body distinguished from the
civil societies of the world by the spiritual nature and design of its
government; for, though Christ would have order kept in his church, yet without
any coercive force; a thing inconsistent with the very nature of such a
society, whose end is instruction; and a practice suitable to it, which can
never in the nature of things be accomplished by penal laws or external
coersion, Isa. xxxiii. 22. Matt. xxiii. 8, 10. John xviii. 36. Ps. ii. 6. 2
Cor. x. 4,5. Zech. iv. 6, &c.
1. Church members are those who compose or belong
to the church. As to the visible church, it may be observed that real saintship
is not the distinguishing criterion of the members of it. None, indeed, can
without it honestly offer themselves to church fellowship; but they cannot be
refused admission for the mere want of it; for 1. God alone can judge the
heart. Deceivers can counterfeit saintship, 1 Sam. xvi. 1, 7.--2. God himself
admitted many members of the Jewish church whose hearts were unsanctified,
Deut. xxix. 3,4,13. John vi. 70.--3. John the Baptist and the apostles required
no more than outward appearance of faith and repentance in order to baptism,
Matt. iii. 5,7. Acts ii. 28.vii. 13,23.--4. Many that were admitted members in
the churches of Judea, Corinth, Philippi, Laodicea, Sardis, &c. were
unregenerated, Acts v. 1,10. viii. 13,23. 1 Cor. i. 11, v. 11. Phil. iii. 18,
19. Rev. iii. 5,15,17.--5. Christ compares the Gospel church to a floor on
which corn and chaff are mingled together: to a net in which good and bad are
gathered, &c. See Matt. xiii.
As to the real church, 1. The true members of it
are such as are born again.--2. They come out from the world, 1 Cor. vi.
17.--3. They openly profess love to Christ, James ii. 14,26. Mark viii. 34
&c.--4. They walk in all the ordinances of the Lord blameless. None but
such are proper members of the true church; nor should any be admitted to any
particular church without some appearance of these, at least.
2. Church fellowship is the communion that the
members enjoy one with another.
The end of church fellowship is, 1. The
maintenance and exhibition of a system of sound principles, 2 Tim. i. 13. 1
Tim. vi. 3,4. 1 Cor. viii. 5,6. Heb. ii. 1. Eph. iv.21.--2. The support of the
ordinances of Gospel worship in their purity and simplicity, Deut. xii. 31,32.
Rom. xv. 6.--3. The impartial exercise of church government and discipline, Heb.
xii. 15. Gal. vi. 1. 2 Tim. ii. 24,26. Tit. iii. 10. 1 Cor. v. James iii.
17.--4. The promotion of holiness in all manner of conversation, Phil. i. 27.
ii. 15,16. 2 Pet. iii. 11. Phil. iv. 8.
The more particular duties are. 1. Earnest study
to keep peace and unity, Eph. iv. 3. Phil. ii. 2,3. Phil. iii.15,16.--2.
Bearing of one another's burdens, Gal. vi. 1,2.--3. Earnest endeavours to
prevent each other's stumblings, 1 Cor. x. 2,3. Heb. x. 24,27. Rom xiv. 13.--4.
Stedfast continuance in the faith and worship of the Gospel, Acts ii. 42.--5.
Praying for and sympathizing with each other, 1 Sam. xii. 23. Eph. vi. 18.
The advantages are, 1. Peculiar incitements to
holiness, Eccl. iv. 11.--2. There are some promises applicable to none but
those who attend the ordinances of God, and hold communion with the saints, Ps.
xcii. 13. Isa. xxv. 6. Ps. cxxii. 13,16. Ps. xxxvi. 8. Jer.xxxi. 12.--3. Such
are under the watchful eye and care of their pastor, Heb. xiii. 7.--4. Subject
to the friendly reproof or kind advice of the saints, 1 Cor. xii. 25.--5. Their
zeal and love are animated by reciprocal conversation, Mal. iii. 16. Prov.
xxvii. 17.--6. They may restore each other if they fall, Eccl. iv. 10. Gal. vi.
1.--7. More easily promote the cause, and spread the Gospel elsewhere.
3. Church ordinances are, 1. Reading of the
Scriptures, Neh. ix. 3. Acts xvii. 11. Neh. viii. 3,4. Luke iv. 16.--2.
Preaching and expounding, 1 Tim. iii. 2. 2 Tim. ii. 24. Eph. iv. 8. Rom. x. 15.
Heb. v. 4.--3. Hearing, Is. iv. 1. James i. 21. 1 Pet. ii. 2. 1 Tim. iv.
13.--4. Prayer, Ps. v. 1,2. Ps. xcv. 6. Ps. cxxi. 1. Ps. xxviii. 2. Acts xii.
12. i. 14.--5. Singing of psalms, Ps. xivii. 1 to 6. Col. iii. 16. 1 Cor. xiv.
15. Eph. v. 19.--6. Thanksgiving, Ps. l. 14. Ps. c. James v. 13.--7. The Lord's
supper, 1 Cor. xi. 23, &c. Acts. xx. 7.
Baptism is not properly a church ordinance, since
it ought to be administered before a person be admitted into church fellowship.
See BAPTISM.
4. church officers are those appointed by Christ
for preaching the word, and the superintendence of church affairs: such are
bishops and deacons, to which some add, elders. See these articles.
5. As to church order and discipline, it may be
observed, that every Christian society formed on the congregational plan is
strictly independent of all other religious societies. No other church however
numerous or respectable; no person or persons, however eminent for authority,
abilities, or influence, have any right to assume arbitrary jurisdiction over such
a society. They have but one master, who is Christ. See Matt. xviii. 15,19.
Even the officers which Christ has appointed in his church have no power to
give new laws to it; but only, in conjunction with the other members of the
society, to execute the commands of Christ. They have no dominion over any
man's faith, nor any compulsive power over the consciences of any. Every
particular church has a right to judge of the fitness of those who offer
themselves as members, Acts ix. 26. If they are found to be proper persons,
they must then be admitted; and this should always be followed with prayer, and
with a solemn exhortation to the persons received. If any member walk
disorderly, and continue to do so, the church is empowered to exclude him, 1
Cor. v. 7. 2 Thess. iii. 6. Rom. xvi. 17. which should be done with the
greatest tenderness; but if evident signs of repentance should be discovered,
such must be received again, Gal. vi. 1. This and other church business is
generally done on some day preceding the sabbath on which the ordinance is
administered.
See art. EXCOMMUNICATION; Dr. Owen on the Nature
of a Gospel Church and its Government; Watts's Rational Foundation of a
Christian Church; Turner's Compendium of Soc. Rel; Fawcett's Constitution and
Order of a Gospel Church; Watts's Works, ser. 53. vol. i.; Goodwin's Works,
vol. iv.; Fuller's Remarks on the Discipline of the Primitive Churches; and
Bryson's Compendious View.
Is the church established by law in this
kingdom.
When and by whom Christianity was first
introduced into Britain cannot perhaps be exactly ascertained. Eusebius,
indeed, positively declares that it was by the apostles and their disciples. It
is also said that numbers of persons professed the Christian faith here about
the year 150; and according to Usher, there was in the year 182 a school of
learning, to provide the British churches with proper teachers. Popery,
however, was established in England by Austin the monk; and the errors of it we
find every where prevalent, until Wichliffe was raised up by Divine Providence
to refute them. The church of England remained in subjection to the pope until
the time of Henry VIIi. Henry, indeed, in early life, and during the former
part of his reign, was a bigotted papist: he burnt the famous Tyndal (who made
one of the first and best translations of the New Testament;) and wrote in
defence of the seven sacraments against Luther, for which the pope gave him the
title of " The Defender of the Faith." But, falling out with the pope
about his marriage, he took the government of ecclesiastical affairs into his
own hand; and, having reformed many abuses, entitled himself supreme head of
the church. See REFORMATION.
The doctrines of the church of England, which are
contained in the thirty-nine articles, are certainly Calvinistical though this
has been denied by some modern writers, especially by Dr. Kipling, in a tract
entitled, "The Articles of the Church of England proved not to be
Calvinistic." These articles were founded, for the most part, upon a body
of articles compiled and published in the reign of Edward VI. They were
afterwards ratified anew in the year 1571, and again by Charles I. The law
requires a subscription to these articles of all persons who are admitted into
holy orders. In the course of the last century disputes arose among the clergy
respecting the propriety of subscribing to any human formulary of religious
sentiments. An application for its removal was made to parliament, in 1772, by
the petitioning clergy; and received the most public discussion in the house of
commons, but was rejected in the house of lords.
The government of the church of England is
episcopal. The king is the supreme head. There are two archbishops, and
twenty-four bishops. The benefices of the bishops were converted by William the
Conqueror into temporal baronies; so that every prelate has a seat and a vote
in the house of peers. Dr. Hoadley, however, in a sermon preached from this
text--"My kingdom is not of this world," insisted that the clergy had
no pretensions to temporal jurisdiction; which gave rise to various
publications, termed by way of eminence, the Bangorian Controversy, because
Hoadley was then bishop of Bangor. Dr. Wake, archbishop of Canterbury, formed a
project of peace and union between the English and Gallican churches, founded
upon this condition, that each of the two communities should retain the
greatest part of their respective and peculiar doctrines; but this project came
to nothing. In the church of England there are deans, archdeacons, rectors,
vicars, &c.; for an account of which, see the respective articles.
The church of England has a public form read,
called a Liturgy. It was composed in 1547, and has undergone several
alterations, the last of which was in 1661. Since that time, several attempts
have been made to amend the liturgy, articles, and some other things relating
to the internal government, but without effect. There are many excellencies in
the liturgy; and, in the opinion of the most impartial Grotius (who was no
member of this church,) "it comes so near the primitive pattern, that none
of the reformed churches can compare with it." See LITURGY.
The greatest part of the inhabitants of England
are professedly members of this church; but, perhaps, very few either of her
ministers or members strictly adhere to the articles in their true sense. Those
who are called methodistic or evangelical preachers in the establishment are
allowed to come the nearest.
See Mr. Overton's True Churchman; Bishop Jewel's
Apology for the Church of England; Abp. Potter's Treatise on Church Government;
Tucker's ditto; Hooker's Ecclesiastical Polity; Pearson on the Creed; Burnet on
the Thirty-nine Articles; Bishop Prettyman's Elements of Theology; and Mrs. H.
More's Hints on forming the Character of a young Princess, vol. ii. ch. 37. On
the subject of the first introduction of Christianity into Britain, see the 1st
vol. of Henry's History of Great Britain.
Denotes the ci-devant church of France under the
government of its respective bishops and pastors. This church always enjoyed
certain franchises and immunities, not as grants from popes, but as derived to
her from her first original, and which she took care never to relinquish. These
liberties depended upon two maxims; the first, that the pope had no right to
order any thing in which the temporalities and civil rights of the kingdom were
concerned; the second, that, notwithstanding the pope's supremacy was admitted
in cases purely spiritual, yet in France his power was limited by the decrees
of ancient councils received in that realm.
In the established church the Jansenists were
very numerous. The bishoprics and prebends were entirely in the gift of the
king; and no other catholic state, except Italy, had so numerous a clergy as
France. There were in this kingdom eighteen archbishops, one hundred and eleven
bishops, one hundred and sixty-six thousand clergymen, and three thousand four
hundred convents, containing two thousand persons devoted to a monastic life.
Since the repeal of the edict of Nantz, the
protestants have suffered much from persecution. A solemn law, which did much
honour to Louis XVI. late king of France, gave to his non-Roman Catholic
subjects, as they were called, all the civil advantages and privileges of their
Roman Catholic brethren.
The above statement was made previously to the
French revolution: great alterations have taken place since that period. And it
may be interesting to those who have not the means of fuller information, to
give a sketch of the causes which gave rise to those important events.
It has been asserted, that about the middle of the
last century a conspiracy was formed to overthrow Christianity, without
distinction of worship, whether Protestant or Catholic. Voltaire D'Alembert,
Frederick II. king of Prussia, and Diderot, were at the head of this
conspiracy. Numerous other adepts and secondary agents were induced to join
them. These pretended philosophers used every artifice that impiety could
invent, by union and secret correspondence, to attack, to debase, and
annihilate Christianity. They not only acted in concert, sparing no political
or impious art to effect the destruction of the Christian religion, but they
were the instigators and conductors of those secondary agents, whom they had
seduced, and pursued their plan with all the ardour and constancy which denotes
the most finished conspirators.
The French clergy amounted to one hundred and
thirty thousand, the higher orders of whom enjoyed immense revenues; but the
cures, or great body of acting clergy, seldom possessed more than twenty-eight
pounds sterling a year, and the vicars about half the sum. The clergy as a
body, independent of their titles, possessed a revenue arising from their
property in land, amounting to five millions sterling annually; at the same
time they were exempt from taxation. Before the levelling system had taken
place, the clergy signified to the commons the instructions of their
constituents, to contribute to the exigencies of the state in equal proportion
with the other citizens. Not contented with this offer, the tithes and revenues
of the clergy were taken away; in lieu of which, it was proposed to grant a
certain stipend to the different ministers of religion, to be payable by the
nation. The possessions of the church were then considered as national property
by a decree of the constituent assembly. The religious orders, viz. the
communities of monks and nuns, possessed immense landed estates; and, after
having abolished the orders, the assembly seized the estates for the use of the
nation: the gates of the cloisters were now thrown open. The next step of the
assembly was to establish what is called the civil constitution of the clergy.
This, the Roman Catholics assert, was in direct opposition to their religion.
But though opposed with energetic eloquence, the decree passed, and was soon
after followed by another, obliging the clergy to swear to maintain their civil
constitution. Every artifice which cunning, and every menace which cruelty
could invent, were used to induce them to take the oath; great numbers,
however, refused. One hundred and thirty-eight bishops and arch-bishops,
sixty-eight curates or vicars, were on this account driven from their sees and
parishes. Three hundred of the priests were massacred in one day in one city.
All the other pastors who adhered to their religion were either sacrificed, or
banished from their country, seeking through a thousand dangers a refuge among
foreign nations. A perusal of the horrid massacres of the priests who refused
to take the oaths, and the various forms of persecution employed by those who
were attached to the Catholic religion, must deeply wound the feelings of
humanity. Those readers who are desirous of farther information, are referred
to Abbe Barrul's History of the Clergy.
Some think that there was another cause of the
revolution, and which may be traced as far back at least as the revocation of
the edict of Nantz in the seventeenth century, when the great body of French
Protestants who were men of principle, were either murdered or banished, and
the rest in a manner silenced. The effect of this sanguinary measure (say they)
must needs be the general prevalence of infidelity. Let the religious part of
any nation be banished, and a general spread of irreligion must necessarily
follow: such were the effects in France. Through the whole of the eighteenth
century infidelity has been the fashion, and that not only among the princes
and noblesse, but even among the greater part of the bishops and clergy. And as
they had united their influence in banishing true religion, and cherishing the
monster which succeeded it, so have they been united in sustaining the
calamitous effects which that monster has produced. However unprincipled and
cruel the French revolutionists have been, and however much the sufferers, as
fellow-creatures, are entitled to our pity; yet, considering the event as the
just retribution of God, we are constrained to say, "Thou art righteous, O
Lord, who art, and wast, and shalt be, because thou hast judged thus; for they
have shed the blood of saints and prophets, and thou hast given them blood to
drink; for they are worthy."
The Catholic religion is now again established,
but with a toleration of the Protestants, under some restriction.--
See the Concordat, or religious establishment on
the French Republic, ratified September 10th, 1801.
Comprehends the churches of all the countries anciently subject to the Greek or Eastern empire, and through which their language was carried; that is, all the space extended from Greece to Mesopotamia and Persia, and thence into Egypt. This church has been divided from the Roman even since the time of the emperor Phocas. See article GREEK CHURCH.
See HIGH CHURCH.
Is the same as the church of England, and is governed by four archbishops and eighteen bishops.
Comprehends all the churches of Italy, Portugal, Spain, Africa, the north, and all other countries whither the Romans carried their language. Great Britain, part of the Netherlands, of Germany, and of the north of Europe, have been separated from it almost ever since the reformation.
Comprehends the whole Protestant churches in Europe and America, whether Lutheran, Calvinistic, Independent, Quaker, Baptist, or of any other denomination who dissent from the church of Rome. The term Reformed is now, however, employed on the continent of Europe, to distinguish the Calvinists from the Lutherans.
Claims the title of being the mother church, and is undoubtedly the most ancient of all the established churches in Christendom, if antiquity be held as a proof of primitive purity. See POPERY.
Established by law in that kingdom, is presbyterian, which has existed (with some interruptions during the reign of the Stuarts) ever since the time of John Knox, when the voice of the people prevailed against the influence of the crown in getting it established. Its doctrines are Calvinistic. See article PRESBYTERIANS.
Officers chosen yearly, either by the consent of the minister, or of the parishioners, or of both. Their business is to look to the church, church-yard, and to observe the behaviour of the parishioners; to levy a shilling forfeiture on all such as do not go to church on Sundays, and to keep persons orderly in church-time, &c.
A piece of ground adjoining to the church, set apart for the interment of the dead. In the church of Rome, church-yards are consecrated with great solemnity. If a church-yard which has been thus consecrated shall afterwards be polluted by any indecent notion, or profaned by the burial of an infidel, an heretic, an excommunicated or unbaptized person, it must be reconciled; and the ceremony of the reconciliation is performed with the same solemnity as that of the consecration! See CONSECRATION.
A species of fanatics; so called because they were continually rambling round the houses in the country. They took their rise among the Donatists, in the reign of the emperor Constantine. It is incredible what ravages and cruelties they committed in Africa, through a long series of years. They were illiterate savage peasants, who understood only the Punic language. Intoxicated with a barbarous zeal, they renounced agriculture, professed continence, and assumed the title of "Vindicators of justice, and protectors of the oppressed." To accomplish their mission, they enfranchized slaves, scoured the roads, forced masters to alight from their chariots, and run before their slaves, whom they obliged to mount in their place; and discharged debtors, killing the creditors if they refused to cancel their bonds. But the chief objects of their cruelty were the Catholics, and especially those who had renounced Donatism. At first they used no swords, because God had forbidden the use of one to Peter: but they were armed with clubs, which they called the clubs of Israel, and which they handled in such a manner as to break a man's bones without killing him immediately, so that he languished a long time, and then died. When they took away a man's life at once, they looked upon it as a favour. They became less scrupulous afterwards, and made use of all sorts of arms. Their shout was Praise be to God. These words in their mouths were the signal of slaughter more terrible than the roaring of a lion. They had invented an unheard-of punishment, which was to cover with lime, diluted with vinegar, the eyes of those unhappy wretches whom they had crushed with blows and covered with wounds, and to abandon them in that condition. Never was a stronger proof what horrors superstition can beget in minds destitute of knowledge and humanity. These brutes, who had made a vow of chastity, gave themselves up to wine, and all sorts of impurities; running about with women and young girls as drunk as themselves, whom they called sacred virgins, and who often carried proof of their incontinence. Their chief took the name of chief of the saints. After having glutted themselves with blood, they turned their rage upon themselves, and sought death with the same fury with which they gave it to others. Some scrambled up to the tops of rocks, and cast themselves down headlong in multitudes; others burned themselves, or threw themselves into the sea. Those who proposed to acquire the title of martyrs, published it long before; upon which they were feasted and fattened like oxen for the slaughter; after these preparations they set out to be destroyed. Sometimes they gave money to those whom they met, and threatened to murder them if they did not make them martyrs. Theodore gives an account of a stout young man, who meeting with a troop of these fanatics, consented to kill them, provided he might bind them first; and having by this means put it out of their power to defend themselves, whipped them as long as he was able, and then left them tied in that manner. Their bishops pretended to blame them, but in reality made use of them to intimidate such as might be tempted to forsake their sect; they even honoured them as saints. They were not, however, able to govern those furious monsters; and more than once found themselves under a necessity of abandoning them, and even of imploring the assistance of the secular power against them. The counts Ursacius and Taurinus were employed to quell them; they destroyed a great number of them, of whom the Donatists made as many martyrs. Usacius, who was a Catholic, and a religious man, having lost his life in an engagement with the barbarians, the Donatists did not fail to triumph in his death, as an effect of the vengeance of heaven. Africa was the theatre of those bloody scenes during a great part of Constantine's life.
A religious order founded by St. Robert, a Benedictine, in the eleventh century. They became so powerful, that they governed almost all Europe both in spirituals and temporals. Cardinal de Vetri, describing their observances, says, they neither wore skins nor shirts, nor ever ate flesh, except in sickness; and abstained from fish, eggs, milk and cheese: they lay upon straw beds in tunics and cowls; they rose at midnight to prayers; they spent the day in labour, reading, and prayers; and in all their exercises observed a continual silence.
Denotes much the same as mercy. It is most
generally used in speaking of the forgiveness exercised by princes. It is the
result, indeed, of a disposition which ought to be cultivated by all ranks,
though its effects cannot be equally conspicuous.
Clemency is not only the privilege, the honour,
and the duty of a prince, but it is also his security, and better than all his
garrisons, forts, and guards, to preserve himself and his dominions in safety.
That prince is truly royal who masters himself, looks upon all injuries as
below him, and governs by equity and reason, not by passion or caprice. David,
king of Israel, appears in no instance greater or more amiable than in sparing
the life of his persecutor Saul, when it was in his power.
(from the Greek word meaning heritage,) in the
general sense of the word, as used by us, signifies the body of ecclesiastics
of the Christian church, in contradistinction to the laity: but strictly
speaking, and according to Scripture, it means the church.--"When
Joshua," as one observes, "divided the Holy Land by lot among the
Israelites, it pleased God to provide for a thirteenth part of them, called
Levites, by assigning them a personal estate equivalent to that provision made
by real estate, which was allotted to each of the other twelve parts. In
conformity to the style of the transaction, the Levites were called God's lot,
inheritance, or clergy. This style, however, is not always used by the Old
Testament writers. Sometimes they call all the nations God's lot, Deut. xxxii.
9. Ps. lxxviii. 71. Ps. xxviii.9, &c. The New Testament writers adopt this
term, and apply it to the whole Christian church, 1 Pet. v. 3. Thus it is the
church distinguished from the world, and not one part of the church as
distinguished from another part." The word clergy, however, among us,
always refers to ecclesiastics.
The clergy originally consisted of bishops,
priests, and deacons; but in the third century many inferior orders were
appointed; such as sub-deacons, acoluthists, readers, &c. The clergy of the
church of Rome are divided into regular and secular. The regular consists of
those monks or religious who have taken upon them holy orders of the priesthood
in their respective monasteries. The secular clergy are those who are not of
any religious order, and have the care and direction of parishes. The
Protestant clergy are all secular. for archbishops, bishops, dean,
&c.&c. see those articles.
The clergy have large privileges allowed them by
our municipal laws, and had formerly much greater, which were abridged at the
reformation, on account of the ill use which the popish clergy had endeavoured
to make of them; for the laws having exempted them from almost every personal
duty, they attempted a total exemption from every secular tie. The personal
exemptions, indeed, for the most part, continue. A clergyman cannot be
compelled to serve on a jury, nor to appear at a court leet, which almost every
other person is obliged to do; but is a layman be summoned on a jury, and
before the trial takes orders, he shall notwithstanding appear, and be sworn.
Neither can he be chosen to any temporal office; as bailiff, reeve, constable,
or the like, in regard to his own continual attendance on the sacred function.
During his attendance on divine service, he is privileged from arrests in civil
suits. In cases of felony also, a clerk in orders shall have the benefit of
clergy, without being branded in the hand, and may likewise have it more than
once; in both which cases he is distinguished from a layman.
Benefit of Clergy was a privilege whereby a
clergyman claimed to be delivered to his ordinary to purge himself of felony,
and which anciently was allowed only to those who were in orders; but, by the
statute of 18th Eliz., every man to whom the benefit of clergy is granted,
though not in orders, is put to read at the bar, after he is found guilty, and
convicted of felony, and so burnt in the hand; and set free for the first time,
if the ordinary or deputy standing by do say, Legit ut clericus: otherwise he
shall suffer death. As the clergy have their privileges, so they have also
their disabilities on account of their spiritual avocations. Clergymen are
incapable of sitting in the house of commons; and by statute 21 Henry VIII. c.
13, are not in general allowed to take any lands or tenements to farm, upon
pain of 10l. per month, and total avoidance of the lease; nor upon like pain to
keep any tap-house or brewhouse; nor engage in any trade, nor sell any merchandise,
under forfeiture of the treble value; which prohibition is consonant to the
canon law.
The number of clergy in England and Wales amount,
according to the best calculation, to 18,000. The revenues of the clergy were
formerly considerable, but since the reformation they are comparatively small,
at least those of the inferior clergy. See the Bishop of Landaff's Valuation of
the Church and University Revenues; or, Cove on the Revenues of the Church,
1797, 2d edition; Burnett's Hist. of his own times, conclusion. See article
MINISTER.
1. A word originally used to denote a learned man, or man of letters; but now is the common appellation by which clergymen distinguish themselves in signing any deed or instrument.--2. Also the person who reads the responses of the congregation in the church, or gives out the hymns at a meeting.
A denomination which arose in the seventeenth
century; so called from John Cocceius, professor of divinity in the University
of Leyden. He represented the whole history of the Old Testament as a mirror,
which held forth an accurate view of the transactions and events that were to
happen in the church under the dispensation of the New Testament, and unto the
end of the world. He maintained that by far the greatest part of the ancient
prophesies foretold Christ's ministry and mediation, and the rise, progress,
and revolutions of the church, not only under the figure of persons and
transactions, but in a literal manner, and by the very sense of the words used
in these predictions; and laid it down as a fundamental rule of interpretation,
that the words and phrases of Scripture are to be understood in every sense of
which they are susceptible, or, in other words, that they signify in effect
every thing that they can possibly signify.
Cocceius also taught, that the covenant made
between God and the Jewish nation, by the ministry of Moses, was of the same
nature as the new covenant, obtained by the mediation of Jesus Christ. In
consequence of this general principle, he maintained that the ten commandments
were promulgated by Moses, not as a rule of obedience, but as a representation
of the covenant of grace--that when the Jews had provoked the Deity by their
various transgressions, particularly by the worship of the golden calf, the
severe and servile yoke of the ceremonial law was added to the decalogue, as a
punishment inflicted on them by the Supreme Being in his righteous
displeasure--that this yoke, which was painful in itself, became doubly so on
account of its typical signification; since it admonished the Israelites from
day to day of the imperfection and uncertainty of their state, filled them with
anxiety, and was a perpetual proof that they had merited the righteous
displeasure of God, and could not expect before the coming of the Messiah the
entire remission of their iniquities--that indeed good men, even under the
Mosaic dispensation, were immediately after death made partakers of everlasting
glory; but that they were nevertheless, during the whole course of their lives,
far removed from that firm hope and assurance of salvation, which rejoices the
faithful under the dispensation of the Gospel--and that their anxiety flowed
naturally from this consideration, that their sins, though they remained
unpunished were not pardoned; because Christ had not as yet offered himself up
a sacrifice to the Father, to make an entire atonement for them.
One who lives in a convent, or in community, under a certain rule; in opposition to a hermit, who lives in solitude. Cassian makes this difference between a convent and a monastery, that the latter may be applied to the residence of a single religious or recluse; whereas the convent implies coenobites, or numbers of religious living in common. Fleury speaks of three kinds of monks in Egypt; anachorets, who live in solitude; coenobites, who continue to live in community; and sarabaites, who are a kind of monks-errant, that stroll from place to place. He refers the institution of coenobites to the time of the apostles, and makes it a kind of imitation of the ordinary lives of the faithful at Jerusalem; though St. Pachomius is ordinarily owned to be the institutor of the coenobite life, as being the first who gave a rule to any community.
A short prayer. In the liturgy of the church of England, and the mass of the Romanists, it denotes a prayer accommodated to any particular day, occasion, or the like. In general, all the prayers in each office are called collects, either because the priest speaks in the name of the whole assembly, whose sentiments and desires he sums up by the word "Oremus." "Let us pray," or because those prayers are offered when the people are assembled together. The popes Gelasius and Gregory are said to have been the first who established collects. Dr. Despence, of Paris, wrote a treatise on collects, their origin antiquity, &c.
or COLLEGIANTS, a sect formed among the Arminians and Anabaptists in Holland, about the beginning of the seventeenth century; so called because of their colleges or meetings twice every week, where every one, females excepted, has the same liberty of expounding the Scripture, praying, &c. They are said to be all either Arians or Socinians: they never communicate in the college, but meet twice a year, from all parts of Holland, at Rhinsberg (whence they are also called Rhtnsberghers,) a village two miles from Leyden, where they communicate together; admitting every one that presents himself, professing his faith in the divinity of the Holy Scriptures, and resolution to live suitably to their precepts and doctrines, without regard to his sect or opinion. They have no particular ministers, but each officiates as he is disposed. They baptize by immersion.
An exposition, book of annotations or remarks.
There are some people so wise in their own conceit, and think human helps of so
little worth, that they despise commentaries on the Scriptures altogether: but
every student or preacher whose business is to explain the sacred oracles, to
make known the mind of God to others, to settle cases of conscience, to oppose
the sophistry of sceptics, and to confound the arguments of infidels, would do
well to avail himself of the most judicious, clear, copious, critical, and sound
commentaries on the Bible. Nor can I suppose that commentaries can be useless
to the common people, for though a spirit of serious enquiry, with a little
good sense, will go a great way in understanding the Bible, yet as the language
is often figurative, as allusions are made to ancient customs, and some parts
require more investigation than many common Christians have time for, a plain
exposition certainly must be useful. Expositions of the Bible, however, may be
made a bad use of. He who takes the i/ise dixit of a commentator, without ever
examining whether the meaning given comport with the text? he who gives himself
no trouble to investigate the Scripture for himself, but takes occasion to be
indolent, because others have laboured for him, surely does wrong. Nor can it
be said that those preachers use them properly, who, in making their sermons,
form their plans from the commentator before they have thought upon the text.
Perhaps the best way is to follow our own talents; first, by prayer, study, and
attention to form our scheme, and then to examine the opinions of others
concerning it. We will here present the reader with a view of some of those
commentaries which are the most generally approved. And, 1st in my opinion,
Henry takes the lead for common utility. The sprightly notes, the just
inferences, the original thoughts, and the warm applications to the conscience,
makes this work justly admired. It is true that there are some expressions
which do not agree with the evangelic system; but, as the late Mr. Rylan
observes, "'Tis impossible for a person of piety and taste to read him
without wishing to be shut out from all the world to read him through without
one moment's interruption." Mr. Henry did not live to complete this work.
He went as far as the end of Acts. Romans was done by Dr. Evans; the 1st
Corinthians, Sam. Brown; 2d Corinthians, Dr. Mayo; Galatians, Mr. Bayes;
Ephesians, Mr. Boswell; Philippians, Mr. Harris; Colossians, Mr. Harris; 1 and
2 Thessalonians, Mr. Mayo; 1 and 2 Timothy, Mr. Atkinson; Titus, Jer. Smith;
Philemon, Mr. Mottershead; Hebrews, Mr. Tong; James, Mr. Wright; 1 Peter, Mr.
Hill; 2 Peter, Mr. Morril; 1,2,and 3 John, Mr. Reynolds; Jude, Mr. Billingsley;
and Revelations by Mr. Tong.
2. Pooli Synopsis Criticorum, 5 folio volumes.
This is a valuable work, and ought to be in the possession of every student: it
is much esteemed abroad, three editions of it having been published on the
continent.
3. Poole's Annotations, a rich and useful work.
These were printed at London in 1685, in two volumes, folio. Poole did not
complete this work himself. Mr. Jackson, of Moulsey, it the author of the
annotations of the 59th and 60th chap. of Isaiah. Dr. Collings drew up the
notes on the rest of Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Lamentations, as also those on the
four Evangelists, the two epistles to the Corinthians, and that to the
Galatians. Those to Timothy, Titus, Philemon, and the Revelation, Ezekiel, and
the minor Prophets, were done by Mr. Hurst, Daniel by Mr. Cooper; the Acts by
Mr. Vinke; the Epistle to the Romans by Mr. Mayo; the Ephesians, Mr. Veale; the
Philippians and Colossians, Mr. Adams; the Hebrews, Mr. Obadiah Hughes; the
epistle of St. James, the two of St. Peter, and that of Jude, by Mr. Veale; the
three epistles of St. John by Mr. Howe.
4. Dr. Gill's, in 9 vol. quarto, is an immense
work; and though it contain a good deal of repetition and extraneous matter,
there is certainly a vast fund of information together with evangelical
sentiment.
5. Brown's Self-interpreting Bible, in 2 vol.
quarto. Its chief excellencies are the marginal references, which are
exceedingly useful to preachers; and the close, plain, and practical
improvement to each chapter.
6. Scott's Exposition is truly excellent. It
abounds with practical remarks, and the last edition contains the marginal
references. The improvements are also very useful for families.
7. Dr. Adam Clarke's commentary, with critical
notes, and marginal references, possess considerable merit, and will be found a
valuable treasure for the Biblical student.
On
the New Testament
1. Burkitt contains many ingenious observations,
fine turns, natural plans, and pungent addresses to the conscience. There are
some expressions, however, that grate upon the ear of the evangelical
Christian.
2. Guyse's Paraphrase is deservedly held in high
estimation for sound doctrine, fair explication, and just sentiment.
3. Doddridge's Family Expositor. the criticisms
in this work render it valuable. It must be owned that the doctor laboured to
come as near as possible to the true sense of the text.
4. Bezae Annotationes, in quibus ratio
interpretationis redditur; accessit etiam J. Camerarii in novem foedus
commentarius, fol. Cantab. 1642, contains, besides the old Latin version,
Beza's own version; and in the side margin is given a summary of the passage,
and in the argumentative parts the connexion.
5. Wolfii Curae Philologicae, & Criticae, in
Omnes Libros, Nov. Test. 5 vols. 4to. 1739, Hamb. Basil, 1741. This is in a
great measure a compilation after the manner of Poole's Synopsis, but
interspersed with his own critical animadversions.
6. Bengelii Gnomon Nov. Test. 4to. Tubingae,
1759, and Ulmae, 1763, contains an instructive preface, a perspicuous analysis
of each book, with short notes. It is a perfect contrast to that of Wolfius.
7. Raphelii annotationes in S. Scripturam,
&c. is an attempt to illustrate the Holy Scriptures from the classical
Greek historians, Xenophon, Polybius, Arrian, and Herodotus.
8. Hammond's Paraphrase and Annotations upon all
the books of the New Testament, folio.
9. Whitby's Paraphrase and commentary on New
Test. 2. vol. fol.
10. Wesley's Explanatory Notes, 4to or 3 vol.
12mo. Of different translations, see article BIBLE.
Commentators
on Select Parts.
1. Ainsworth on the Pentateuch, Psalms, and Song
of Solomon.
2. Patrick's Commentaries on the Historical Parts
of the Holy Scriptures, 3 vol.
3. Lightfoot's Works, 2 vol. fol. contain a
chronicle of the times, and the order of the text of the Old Testament. The
harmony, chronicled, and order of the New Testament; the harmony of the four
Evangelists; a commentary on the Acts; Horae Hebraicae, &c. on the four
Evangelists, Acts, and 1 Corinthians.
4. Chrysostomi Opera, 8 vol. fol. contain
expositions of various parts.
5. Calvini Opera Omnia, 9 vol. contain
commentaries on the Pentateuch, Joshua, homilies on Samuel, sermons on Job,
commentaries on Psalms, Isaiah, Evangelists, Acts, Paul's epistles, and the
other Catholic epistles; an praelectiones on Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, and the
Minor Prophets.
6. Lowth on the Prophets.
7. Pocock on some of the Minor Prophets.
8. Locke on Paul's epistles.
9. Hutcheson on the Smaller Prophets.
10. Newcome on Ezekiel and Minor Prophets.
11. Macknight's Harmony of the Gospel, and
Literal Translation of all the Apostolical Epistles, with Commentary and Notes.
12. Campbell's Translation of the Gospels, with Notes
and Dissertations.
On
Select Books.
On Ruth: Macgowan, Lawson.
On Job: 1. Caryll, 2 vol. fol.--2. Hutchinson,
1669, fol.--3. Peters's Critical Dissertation on Book of Job.--4. Chapellou.
On the Psalms: 1. Molleri Enarr. Psalm. fol.
1619.--2. Hammond's Paraphrase.--3. Amesii Lectiones in Omnes Psalmos, Oct.
1636.--4. Dickson.--5. Horne's Commentary.--On Select Psalms: 1. Hildersham's
152 Lectures on Psalm li.--2. Decoetlogon's Serm. on Psalm li.--3. Greenham on
Psalm cxix.--4. Manton on Psalm cxix.--5. Owen on Psalm cxxx.--6. Luther on the
15 Psalms of Degrees.--7. Horton on Psalms iv. xlii, li, and lxii.
On Proverbs: Dr. Mayer, Taylor, io. Trapp.
Ecclesiastes: Broughton, Wardlaw, Jermyn.
Canticles: Bp. Foliot, Mercier, Sanchez, Bossnet,
Cocceius, Dr. James, Ainsworth, Durham, Bishop Hall, Bishop Patrick, Dove,
Trapp, Jackson, Dr. Collings, Dr. Gill, Dr. Percy, Harmer, Dr. Durell; but the
most recent, and perhaps the best, is Wiliam's new translation with commentary,
&c. where the reader will find a list of other names who have translated
and written on parts of this book.
Isaiah: Vitringa, Lowth, M'Culloch.
Jeremiah: Blayney.
Ezekiel: Greenhill, Newcome.
Daniel: Willet's Hexapla, fol. Sir Isaac Newton
on Prophecies of Daniel.
Hosea: Burroughs, Bishop Horsley's translation,
with explanatory notes.
Of the other Minor Prophets, see Commentaries on
Select Parts.
Gospels: See above, and article HARMONY. Also
Hildersham on John iv. fol. Burgess on John xvii. Manton on John xvii.
Acts: Mayer, Trapp.
Romans: Wilson, Parr.
Galatians: Luther, Ferguson, Perkins.
Ephesians: Ferguson, Goodwin.
Colossians: Byfield, Davenant, Elton.
Titus: Dr. Thomas Taylor.
Hebrews: Dr. Owen.
James: Manton.
1 Peter: Leighton, and N. Byfield on the first
three chapters.
2 Peter: Adam.
John: Hardy on 1 Epistle, and Hawkins on the
three Epistles of John.
Jude: Jenkins, Manton, Otes.
Revelation: Mede, Daubuz, Brightman, Peganius,
Waple, Robertson, Vitringa, Pyle, Goodwin, Lowman, Sir Isaac Newton, Durham,
Cradock, Dr. H. Moore, Bishop Newton, Dr. Bryce Johnston.
As this article may be consulted for the purpose
of obtaining information as to the best helps for understanding the Scriptures,
we may add to the above:--Jacobi Elsner, Observat, Sacrae; Alberti Observ.
Philolog.; Lamberti Bos, Exercitat. Philolog.; Lamberti Bos, Observat. Miscell.
fortuita Sacra. These, together with Wolfius and Raphelius, before mentioned,
says Dr. Doddridge, are books which I cannot but recommend to my young friends,
as proper not only to ascertain the sense of a variety of words and phrases
which occur in the apostolic writings, but also to form them to the most useful
method of studying the Greek classics; those great masters of solid sense,
elegant expression, just and lively painting, and masculine eloquence, to the
neglect of which I cannot but ascribe that enervate, dissolute, and puerile
manner of writing, which is growing so much on the present age, and will
probably consign so many of its productions to speedy oblivion. See also books
recommended under articles BIBLE, SCRIPTURES.
An office in the church of england appointed to be read on Ash Wednesday. It is substituted in the room of that godly discipline in the primitive church, by which ( as the introduction to the office expresses it ) "such persons as stood convicted of notorious sins were put to open penance, and punished in this world, that their souls might be saved in the day of the Lord; and that others, admonished by their example, might be the more afraid to offend." This discipline, in after ages, degenerated in the church of Rome into a formal confession of sins upon Ash Wednesday, and the empty ceremony of sprinkling ashes upon the head of the people. Our reformers wisely rejected this ceremony as mere shadow and show; and substituted this office in its room, which is A denunciation of God's anger and judgment against sinners; that the people, being apprised of God's wrath and indignation against their sins, might not,through want of discipline to the church, be encouraged to pursue them.
An officer of the bishop, who exercises spiritual jurisdiction in places of a diocese so far from the episcopal see, that the chancellor cannot call the people to the bishop's principal consistory court without great inconvenience.
A term made use of to denote the act of receiving the Lord's supper. Those of the reformed and of the Greek church communicate under both kinds; those of the Romish only under one. The oriental communicants receive the species of wine by a spoon; and anciently they sucked it through a pipe, as has been observed by Beat Rheanus on Tertullian.
In its strict and proper sense signifies holding
something in common with another, Acts ii. 42.--2. In a more general sense, it
denotes conformity or agreement, 2 Cor. vi. 14. Eph. v. 11.--3. It signifies
converse, or friendly intercourse, wherein men contrive or consult together
about matters of common concern, Luke vi. 11. Ps. iv. 4.--4. Communion is also
used for the Lord's supper, because we herein make a public profession of our
conformity to Christ and his laws; and of our agreement with other Christians
in the spirit and faith of the Gospel. See LORD'S SUPPER.
The fourth council of Lateran decrees, that every
believer shall receive the communion, at least, at Easter; which seems to
import a tacit desire that they should do it oftener in the primitive days.
Gratian and the master of the sentences, prescribe it as a rule for the laity
to communicate three times a year; at Easter, Whitsuntide, and Christmas: but
in the thirteenth century the practice prevailed of never approaching the
eucharist at Easter; and the council thought fit to enjoin it then by a law,
lest their coldness and remissness should go farther still: and the council of
Trent renewed the same injunction, and recommended frequent communion without
enforcing it by an express decree. In the ninth century the communion was still
received by the laity in both kinds, or rather the species of bread was dipped
in the wine, as is owned by the Romanists themselves. M. de Marca observes,
that they received it at first in their hands; and believes the communion under
one kind alone to have had its rise in the West, under pope Urban II. in 1096,
at the time of the conquest of the Holy Land. It was more solemnly enjoined by
the council of Constance, in 1414. The twenty-eighth canon of the council of
Clermont enjoins the communion to be received under both kinds distinctly;
adding, however, two exceptions,--the one of necessity, the other of caution;
the first in favour of the sick, and the second of the abstemious, or those who
had an aversion for wine. It was formerly a kind of canonical punishment for
clerks guilty of any crime to be reduced to lay communion; i.e. only to receive
it as the laity did, viz. under one kind. They had another punishment of the
same nature, though under a different name, called foreign communion, to which
the canons frequently condemned their bishops and other clerks. This punishment
was not any excommunication or deposition, but a kind of suspension from the
function of the order, and a degradation from the rank they held in the church.
It had its name because the communion was only granted to the criminal on the
foot of a foreign clerk; i.e. being reduced to the lowest of his order, he took
his place after all those of his rank, as all clerks, &c. did in the
churches to which they did not belong. The second council of Agda orders every
clerk that absents himself from the church to be reduced to foreign communion.
Church communion is fellowship with any
particular church. See CHURCH FELLOWSHIP. It is sometimes applied to different
churches united in doctrine and discipline. The three grand communions into
which the Christian church is divided is that of the church of Rome, the Greek
church, and the Protestant church; but originally all Christians were in
communion with each other, having one communion, faith, and discipline.
Free Communion, a term made use of in relation to
the Lord's supper, by which it is understood that all those who have been
baptized, whether in infancy or adult age, may, on profession of their faith,
sit down at the Lord's table with others of different denominations. Some of
the Baptists object to free or mixed communion, and do not allow of persons who
have been baptized in their infancy to join in the celebration of the Lord's
supper with them: because they look upon such as not having been baptized at
all, and consequently cannot be admitted to the table. Others, however, suppose
that this ought to be no objection; and that such who believe themselves to be
really baptized (though in infancy,) are partakers of grace, belong to the true
church of Christ, and are truly devoted to God, ought not to be rejected on
account of a different opinion about a mere ordinance. Mr. Killingworth and Mr.
Booth have written against free communion; John Bunyan, Dr. Foster, Mr.
Bulkley, Mr. Wiche, and Mr. Robinson, for it.
Spiritual or divine, is that delightful fellowship and intercourse which a believer enjoys with God. It is founded upon union with him, and consists in a communication of divine graces from him, and a return of devout affections to him. The believer holds communion with God in his works, in his word, and in his ordinances. There can be no communion without likeness, nor without Christ as the mediator. Some distinguished communion with God from the sense and feeling of it; that is, that we may hold communion with him without raptures of Joy; and that a saint, even under desertion, may have communion with God as really, though not so feelingly, as at any other time. This communion cannot be interrupted by any local mutations: it is far superior to all outward services and ordinances whatsoever; it concerns the whole soul, all the affections, faculties, and motions of it being under its influence: it is only imperfect in this life, and will be unspeakably enlarged in a better world.--In order to keep up communion with God, we should inform ourselves of his will, John v. 39. be often in prayer, Luke viii. 1. embrace opportunities of retirement, Ps. civ. 34. watch against a vain, trifling, and volatile spirit, Eph. iv. 30. and be found in the use of all the means of grace, Ps. xxvii. 4. the advantages of communion with God are, deadness to the world, Phil. iii. 8. patience under trouble, Job i. 22. fortitude in danger, Ps. xxvii. 1. gratitude for mercies received, Ps. ciii. 1. direction under difficulties, Prov. iii. 5,6. peace and joy in opposition, Ps. xvi. 23. happiness in death, Ps. xxiii.4. and an earnest desire for heaven and glory, 2 Tim. iv. 7,8. See Shaw's Immanuel; Owen and Henry on Communion; and article FELLOWSHIP.
Is that species of affection which is excited either by the actual distress of its object, or by some impending calamity which appears inevitable. It is a benevolent sorrow for the sufferings or approaching misery of another. The etymology of the word expresses this idea with strict propriety, as it signifies suffering with the object. Hobbes makes this a mere selfish passion, and defines it as "being fear for ourselves." Hutcheson resolves it into instinct; but Dr. Butler much more properly considers it as an original distinct particular affection in human nature. It may be considered as a generic name, comprehending several other affections; as mercy, commiseration, pity. This affection, (as well as every other of our nature,) no doubt, was wisely given us by our Creator. "Ideas of fitness," as Saurin observes, "seldom make much impression on the bulk of mankind; it was necessary therefore to make sensibility supply the want of reflection; and by a counter-blow with which the miseries of a neighbour strike our feeling, produce a disposition in us to relieve him."
Is the infinite greatness of his mercy and love, whereby he relieves the miseries of his people. This perfection of Jehovah is conspicuously displayed in the gift of his Son, John iii. 16. the revelation of his will, Hos. viii. 12. the bounties of his providence, Ps. cxiv. 9. the exercise of his patience, Rom. ii. 4. the promise of his mercy, Ps. lxxviii. 38. the manifestation of his presence, Matt. xviii. 20. and the provision of eternal glory, 1 Pet. i. 4. See MERCY.
See BIBLE, No. 29.
In English church history, denotes a scheme proposed by Sir Orlando Bridgman, in 1667-8, for relaxing the terms of conformity on behalf of the Protestant Dissenters, and admitting them into the communion of the church. A bill for this purpose was drawn up by Judge Hale, but disallowed. The attempt was renewed by Tillotson and Stillingfleet, in 1674, and the terms were settled, to the satisfaction of the non-conformists; but the bishops refused their assent. The scheme was likewise revived again immediately after the revolution. The king and queen expressed their desire of an union: however, the design failed, after two attempts, and the act of toleration was obtained.
The supernatural and miraculous formation of the human nature of Jesus Christ. "It were not difficult to show," says a divine, "that the miraculous conception, once admitted, naturally bring up after it the great doctrines of the atonement and the incarnation. The miraculous conception of our Lord evidently implies some higher purpose of his coming than the mere business of a teacher. The business of a teacher might have been performed by a mere man, enlightened by the prophetic spirit. For whatever instruction men have the capacity to receive, a man might have been made the instrument to convey. Had teaching, therefore, been the sole purpose of our Saviour's coming, a mere man might have done the whole business, and the supernatural conception had been an unnecessary miracle. He, therefore, who came in this miraculous way, came upon some higher business, to which a mere man was an equal. He came to be made a sin offering for us, that we might be made the righteousness of God in him." See Bp. Horsley's Tracts, and article HUMANITY OF CHRIST.
Of the Holy Virgin, is a popish festival established in honour of the Virgin Mary, on the supposition of her having been conceived, and born immaculate, i.e. without original sin: held on the 8th of December. The immaculate conception is the great head of controversy between the Scotists and Thomists; the former maintaining and the latter impurgning it. Peter D'Alva has published 48 huge folio volumes on the mysteries of the conception.
The assembly or meeting of the cardinals shut up for the election of a Pope. Conclave also signifies the place in which the cardinals of the Romish church meet for the above-mentioned purpose. The conclave is a range of small cells, ten feet square, made of wainscot: these are numbered, and drawn by lot. They stand in a line along the galleries and hall of the Vatican, with a small space between each. Every cell has the arms of the cardinal over it. The conclave is not fixed to any one determinate place, for the constitutions of the church allow the cardinals to make choice of such a place for the conclave as they think most convenient: yet it is generally held in the Vatican.--The conclave is very strictly guarded by troops: neither the cardinals, nor any person shut up in the conclave, are spoken to, but at the hours allowed of, and then in Italian or Latin: even the provisions for the conclave are examined, that no letters be conveyed by that means from the ministers of foreign powers, or other persons, who may have an interest in the election of the pontiff.
Form of.--Form of concord, in ecclesiastical history, a standard-book among the Lutherans, composed at Torgaw in 1576, and thence called the book of Torgaw, and reviewed at Berg by six Lutheran doctors of Germany, the principal of whom was James Anderae. This book contains, in two parts, a system of doctrine, the subscription of which was a condition of communion, and a formal and very severe condemnation of all who differed from the compilers of it; particularly with respect to the majesty and omnipresence of Christ's body, and the real manducation of his flesh and blood in the eucharist. It was first imposed upon the Saxons by Augustus, and occasioned great opposition and disturbance. The dispute about it was revived in Switzerland in 1718, when the magistrates of Bern published an order for adopting it as a rule of faith; the consequence of which was a contest that reduced its credit and authority.
A dictionary or index to the Bible, wherein all
the leading words are ranged alphabetically, and the books, chapters, and
verses wherein they occur referred to, to assist in finding out passages, and
comparing with the several significations of the same word. Cardinal Hugo de
St. Charo seems to have been the first who compiled a concordance to the Holy
Scriptures; and for carrying on this work, it is said, he employed 500 monks to
assist him. Rabbi Mordecai Nathan published a Hebrew concordance, printed at
Venice in 1523, containing all the Hebrew roots, branched into their various
significations, and under each signification all the places in Scripture
wherein it occurs; but the best and most useful Hebrew concordance is that of
Buxtorf, printed at Basil in 1632. Calasius, an Italian cordelier, has given us
concordances of the Hebrew, Latin, and Greek, in two columns: the first, which
is Hebrew, is that of rabbi Mordecai Nathan verbatim, and according to the
order of the books and chapters: in the other column is a Latin interpretation
of each passage of Scripture quoted by R. Mordecai: this interpretation is
Calasius's own; but in the margin he adds that of the LXX and the Vulgate, when
different from his. The work is in 4 vols. folio, printed at Rome in 1621. A
new edition of this work was published by subscription in London, in 1747, 8,9,
by Mr. Romaine, to which he obtained the signature of every crowned head in
Europe, his Holiness not excepted. Dr. Taylor published, in 1754, a Hebrew
concordance, in 2 vols. folio, adapted to the English Bible, and disposed after
the same manner as Buxtorf. This is perhaps the best for English readers.
The Greek concordances are only for the New
Testament, except one by Conrad Kircher on the Old, containing all the Hebrew
words in alphabetical order; and underneath, all the interpretations of them in
the LXX, and in each interpretation all the places where they occur in that
version. In 1718, Trommius published his Greek concordance for the LXX, at
Amsterdam, in 2 vols. folio; and Schmidius, improving on a similar work of H.
Stephen, has given an excellent Greek concordance for the New Testament the
best edition of which is that of Lepsic, anno 1717. William's concordance to
the Greek Testament gives the English version to each word, and points out the
principal Hebrew roots corresponding to the Greek words of the Septuagint,
4to.1767. We have several concordances in English, as Fisher's, Butterworth's,
Newman's, Brown's; but the best esteemed is that in 4to. by Alexander Cruden,
which no minister or student should be without, except he have such a
prodigious memory as to supersede the necessity of it. Crutwell's Concordance
of Parallels may also be consulted with profit. Talbot's complete Analysis, and
new Arrangement of the Bible; Dodd and Locke's Common-place Books; with Clark
on the Promises, and Gastrill's Institutes, may also be useful to preachers.
The act of living with a woman to whom the man is not legally married. It is also used for a marriage with a woman of inferior condition (performed with less solemnity than the formal marriage,) and to whom the husband does not convey his rank. As polygamy was sometimes practised by the patriarchs, it was a common thing to see one, two, or many wives in a family, and besides these several concubines, 2 Sam. iii.3, &c. 1 Kings xi. 3. 2 Chron. xi. 21; but ever since the abrogation of polygamy by Jesus Christ, and the reduction of marriage to its primitive institution, concubinage has been forbidden and condemned among Christians.
Is that species of benevolence which designedly waves the supposed advantage of birth, title, or station, in order to accommodate ourselves to the state of an inferior, and diminish that restraint which the apparent distance is calculated to produce in him. It is enjoined on the Christian, and is peculiarly ornamental to the Christian character, Rom. xii. 16. the condescension of God appears every way great, when we consider his infinite perfection, his absolute independence of his creatures, his purposes of mercy toward them, and his continual care over them.
A term of a bargain to be performed. It has been debated whether faith should be called the condition of our salvation. If by it we mean a valuable equivalent for the benefit received, or something to be performed in our own strength, or that will be meritorious, it is certainly inapplicable; but if by it be meant that it is only a mean, without which we cannot be saved, in that sense it is not improper. Yet as the term is often made use of improperly by those who are mere legalists, perhaps it would be as well to decline the use of it.
The act of discoursing with another in order to treat upon some subject, or to settle some point of dispute. Conference Meetings, in a religious sense, are meetings assembled for the purpose of relating experience, discoursing on some religious subject, or for transacting religious business. "Religious conference," says a divine, "is one way of teaching religion. We all have leisure time, and it is well spent on when it is employed in set conferences on religion. There the doubting man may open all his suspicions, and confirmed Christians will strengthen his belief; there the fearful may learn to be valiant for the truth; there the liberal may learn to devise liberal things; there the tongue of the stammerer may learn to speak plainly; there Paul may withstand Peter to the face, because he deserves to be blamed; there the Gospel may be communicated severally to them of reputation; there, in one word, ye may all prophesy one by one, that all may learn, and all may be comforted. One hour in a week spent thus will contribute much to our edification, provided we abstain from the disorders that have often disgraced, and sometimes destroyed, this excellent Christian practice. Time should be kept, order should be preserved, no idle question should be asked; freedom of inquiry should be nourished; immodest forwardness should be restrained; practical , experimental, and substantial subjects should be examined; Charity with all its gentle train should be there, for she openeth her mouth with wisdom, and in her tongue is the law of kindness." See EXPERIENCE MEETINGS.
The verbal acknowledgment which a Christian
makes of his sins. Among the Jews, it was the custom, on the annual feast of
expiation, for the high priest to make confession of sins to God, in the name
of the whole people: besides this general confession, the Jews were enjoined,
if their sins were a breach of the first table of the law, to make confession
of them to God; but violations of the second table were to be acknowledged to
their brethren. Confession, according to Dr. Watts, is the third part of
prayer, and includes, 1. A confession of the meanness of our original, our
distance from God, our subjection to him, and constant dependence on him.--2. A
confession of our sins, both original and actual, in thought, life, omission
and commission.--3. A confession of our desert of punishment, and our
unworthiness of mercy.--4. A confession or humble representation of our wants
and sorrows of every kind. Confession also may be considered as a relative
duty, or the acknowledgment of any offence we have been guilty of against a
fellow-creature. The Romish church requires confession not only as a duty, but
has advanced it to the dignity of a sacrament. These confessions are made to
the priest, and are private and auricular; and the priest is not to reveal them
under pain of the highest punishment. This, however, is both unnecessary and
unscriptural; for in the first place, there is no proof that the power of
remitting and retaining sins (the pretended ground of sacramental confession)
was imparted to any but the apostles, or at the most to those to whom a
discernment of spirits were communicated.--2. If our Saviour had designed this
to have been a duty, he would most probably have delivered us an express
command to this purpose.--3. This authority of pardoning sins immediately in
relation to God (the foundation of the pretended duty of secret confession,)
without any reference to church censures, was never claimed for many ages after
Christ.
Notwithstanding, however, private auricular
confession is not of divine authority, yet, as one observes, "there are
many cases wherein men under the guilt and trouble of their sins can neither
appease their own minds, nor sufficiently direct themselves without recourse to
some pious and prudent guide: in these cases men certainly do very well, and
many times prevent a great deal of trouble and perplexity to themselves by a
timely discovery of their condition to some faithful minister; and to this
purpose a general confession is for the most part sufficient: and where there
is occasion for a more particular discovery, there is no need of raking into
the particular circumstances of men's sins to give that advice which is
necessary for the ease and comfort of the penitent." See ABSOLUTION; Watts
on Prayer; Tillotson's Ser., ser. 160, 161; Smith's Errors of the Church of
Rome.
A list of the several articles of the belief of any church. There is some difference between creeds and confessions. Creeds in their commencement were simply expressions of faith in a few of the leading and undisputed doctrines of the Gospel. Confessions were on the contrary the result of many an hazardous and laborious effort, at the dawn of reviving literature to recover these doctrines, and to separate them from the enormous mass of erroneous and corrupted tenets, which the negligence or ignorance of some, and the artifices of avarice and ambition in others, had conduced to accumulate for a space of 1000 years, under an implicit obedience to the arrogant pretensions of an absolute and infallible authority in the church of Rome. Objections have been formed against all creeds or confessions of faith, as it is said they infringe Christian liberty, supersede the Scriptures, exclude such as ought not to be excluded, and admit such as ought not to be admitted; are often too particular and long; are liable to be abused; tempt men to hypocrisy; preclude improvement; and have been employed as means of persecution. On the other hand, the advocates for them observe, that all the arts and sciences have been reduced to a system; and why should not the truths of religion, which are of greater importance? That a comendious view of the chief and most necessary points of the Christian religion, which lie scattered up and down in the mind, as well also to hold forth to the world what are in general the sentiments of such a particular church or churches; they tend to discover the common friends of the same faith to one another, and to unite them; that the Scriptures seem to authorize and countenance them; such as the moral law, the Lord's prayer, the form of doctrine mentioned by Paul, Rom. vi. 17; and again, "the form of sound words," in 2 Tim. i. 13 &c.; that their becoming the occasion of hypocrisy is no fault of the articles, but of those who subscribe them; that persecution has been raised more by the turbulent tempers of men than from the nature of confessions. Some think that all articles and confessions of faith should be expressed in the bare words of Scripture; but is replied, that this would have a tendency to make the ministry of the word useless; in a great measure cramp all religious conversation; and that the sentiments of one man could not be distinguished from another in some points of importance. Some of the most noted confessions and canons of the church of England; the Westminster Assembly's Confession of Faith; the Savoy Confession, or a declaration of the faith and order, owned and practised in the congregational churches in England. See also Corpus et Syntagma confessionum fidel, quae in diversis regnis et nationibus ecclesiarum nomine, fuerunt authentice editae, which exhibits a body of numerous confessions. See likewise, An Harmony of the confessions of Faith of the christian and Reformed Churches; Watt's Rational Foundation of a Christian Church, qu. 8; Graham on Establishments, p. 265, &c.; Bishop Cleaver's Sermon on the Formation of the Articles of the Church of England; the Articles of the Church of England; Paley's Phil. vol. 2. p. 321.
A christian who has made a solemn and resolute
profession of the faith, and has endured torments in its defence. A mere saint
is called a confessor, to distinguish him from the roll of dignified saints,
such as apostles, martyrs, &c. In ecclesiastical history, the word
confessor is sometimes used for martyr; in after times it was confined to those
who, after having been tormented by the tyrants, were permitted to live and die
in peace; and at last it was also used for those who, after having lived a good
life, died under an opinion of sanctity. According to St. Cyprian, he who
presented himself to torture, or even to martyrdom, without being called to it,
was not called a confessor but a professor; and if any out of want of courage
abandoned his country, and became a voluntary exile for the sake of the faith,
he was called exterris.
Confessor is also a priest in the Romish church,
who has a power to hear sinners in the sacrament of penance, and to give them
absolution. The confessors of the kings of France, from the time of Henry IV. have
been constantly Jesuits; before him, the Dominicans and Cordeliers shared the
office between them. The confessors of the house of Austria, have also
ordinarily been Dominicans and Cordeliers, but the latter emperors have all
taken Jesuits.
The act of establishing any thing or person.--1.
Divine confirmation is a work of the Spirit of God, strengthening, comforting,
and establishing believers in faith and obedience, 1st Pet. v. 10. 1st Cor. i.
8.--2. Ecclesiastical confirmation is a rite whereby a person, arrived to years
of discretion, undertakes the performance of every part of the baptismal vow
made for him by his godfathers and godmothers.
In the primitive church it was done immediately
after baptism, if the bishop happened to be present at the solemnity.
Throughout the East it still accompanies baptism; but the Romanists make it a
distinct independent sacrament. Seven years is the stated time for
confirmation; however, they are sometimes after that age. The person to be
confirmed has a godfather and godmother appointed him, as in baptism. In the
church of England, the age of the persons to be confirmed is not fixed. Clark's
Essay on Confirmation; Wood on ditto; How's Episcopacy. p. 167,174.
GENERAL. A term used to denote that grand period
or catastrophe of our world, when the face of nature is to be changed by fire,
as formerly it was by water.
1. Scripture assures us in the general that this
earth in its present form will not be perpetual, but shall come to an end.--2.
It farther tells us, that this dissolution of the world shall be by a general
conflagration, in which all things upon the face of the earth shall be
destroyed, by which the atmosphere shall also be sensibly affected, as in such
a case it necessarily must be, 2 Pet. iii. 5-7. 10. 12. where from the
connection of the words, the opposition between the conflagration and the
deluge, as well as the most literal and apparent import of the phrases
themselves, it is plain they cannot, as Dr. Hammond strangely supposes, refer
to the desolation brought on Judea when destroyed by the Romans, but must refer
to the dissolution of the whole earth.--3. The Scripture represents this great
burning as a circumstance nearly connected with the day of judgment, 2 Pet.
iii. 7. compared with 2 Thess. i. 7,8. Heb. x. 27. 1 Cor. iii. 12,13; and it is
probable that there may be an allusion to this in several passages of the Old
Testament, such as Ps. xi. 6. Ps. l. 3. Ps. xcvi. 3. Is. xxxiv. 4,8,10. Is.
lxvi 15. Dan. vii. 9,10. Mal. iv. 1. Zeph. iii. 8. Deut. xxxii. 22. to which
many parallel expressions might be added, from the canonical and apocryphal
books.--4. It is not expressly declared how this burning shall be kindled, nor
how it shall end; which has given occasion to various conjectures about it,
which see below.
The ancient Pythagoreans, Platonists, Epicureans,
and Stoics, appear to have had a notion of the conflagration; though whence
they should derive it, unless from the sacred books, is difficult to conceive;
except, perhaps, from the Phoenicians, who themselves had it from the Jews.
Mention of the conflagration is made in the books of the Sibyls, Sophocies,
Hystaspes, Ovid, Lucan, &c. Dr. Burnet, after J. Tachard and others,
relates that the Siamese believe that the earth will at last, be parched up
with heat, the mountains melted down, the earth's whole surface reduced to a
level, and then consumed with fire. And the Bramins of Siam do not only hold
that the world shall be destroyed by fire, but also that a new earth shall be
made out of the cinders of the old.
Divines ordinarily account for the conflagration
metaphysically, and will have it take its rise from a miracle, as a fire from
heaven. Philosophers contend for its being produced from natural causes, and
will have it effected according to the laws of mechanics. Some think an
eruption of the central fire sufficient for the purpose; and add, that this may
be occasioned several ways, viz. either by having its intention increased,which
again may be effected either by being driven into less space by the
encroachments of the superficial cold, or by an increase of the inflammability
of the fuel whereon it is fed; or by having the resistance of the imprisoning
earth weakened, which may happen either from the diminution of its matter, by
the consumption of its central parts, or by weakening the cohesion of the
constituent parts of the mass by the excess of the defect of moisture. Others
look for the cause of the conflagration in the atmosphere, and suppose that
some of the meteors there engendered in unusual quantities, and exploded with
unusual vehemence, from the concurrence of various circumstances, may effect it
without seeking any farther.--Lastly, others have recourse to a still more
effectual and flaming machine, and conclude the world is to undergo its
conflagration from the near approach of a comet in its return from the sun.
Various opinions also are entertained as to the
renovation of the earth after the conflagration.--1. Some suppose that the
earth will not be entirely consumed, but that the matter of which it consists
will be fixed, purified, and refined, which they say will be the natural
consequence of the action of fire upon it; though it is hard to say what such a
purification can do towards fitting it for its intended purpose, for it is
certain a mass of crystal or glass would very ill answer the following parts of
this hypothesis.--2. They suppose that from these materials thus refined, as
from a second chaos, there will by the power of God arise a new creation; and
then the face of the earth, and likewise the atmosphere, will then be so
restored, as to resemble what it originally was in the paradisaical state; and
consequently to render it a more desirable abode for human creatures than it at
present is: and they urge for this purpose the following texts, viz. 2 Pet.
iii. 13. (compare Is. lxv. 17, lxvi. 22.) Matt. xix. 28,29. (compare Mark x.
29,30. Luke xviii. 29,30.) Ps. cii. 25,26. Acts iii. 21. 1 Cor. vii. 31. Rom.
viii. 21.--3. They agree in supposing, that in this new state of things there
will be no sea, Rev. xxi. 1.--4. They suppose that the earth, thus beautified
and improved, shall be inhabited by those who shall inherit the first
resurrection, and shall here enjoy a very considerable degree of happiness,
though not equal to that which is to succeed the general judgment; which
judgment shall, according to them, open when those thousand years are expired,
mentioned in Rev. xx. 4. &c. 1 Thess. iv. 17. compare ver. 15., which
passage is thought by some to contain an insinuation that Paul expected to be
alive at the appearance of Christ, which must imply an expectation of being
thus raised from the dead before it: but it is answered that the expression we
that are alive may only signify "that of us that are so," speaking of
all Christians as one body, 1st Cor. xv. 49-52. Dr. Hartley declared it as his
opinion, that the millennium will consist of a thousand prophetical years,
where each day is a year, i. e. 360,000; pleading that this is the language
used in other parts of the Revelation. But it seems an invincible objection
against this hypothesis, which places the millennium after the conflagration,
that the saints inhabiting the earth after the first resurrection are
represented as distressed by the invasion of some wicked enemies, Rev. xx. 7-9.
Ezekiel xxxviii. xxxix. See MILLENNIUM.
After all, little can be said with certainty as
to this subject. It is probable that the earth will survive its fiery trial,
and become the everlasting abode of righteousness, as part of the holy empire
of God; but, seeing the language used in Scripture, and especially in the book
of Revelation, is often to be considered as figurative rather than literal, it
becomes us to be cautious in our conclusions. Burnet's Theory of the Earth;
Whitby on the Millennium; Hartley on Man, vol. ii. p. 400; Fleming on the first
Resurrection; Ray's three Discourses; Whiston's Theory of the Earth; and
article DISSOLUTION in this work.
A memorable event which happened in the one hundred and first year, according to the Hebrew chronology, and the four hundred and first year by the Samaritan, after the flood, at the overthrow of Babel, Gen. xi. Until this period there had been but one common language, which formed a bond of union that prevented the separation of mankind into distinct nations. Writers have differed much as to the nature of this confusion, and the manner in which it was effected. Some think that no new languages were formed; but that this event was accomplished by creating a misunderstanding and variance among the builders without any immediate influence on their language; and that a distinction is to be made between confounding a language and forming new ones. Others account for this event by the privation of all language, and by supposing that mankind were under a necessity of associating together, and of imposing new names on things by common consent. Some, again, ascribe the confusion to such an indistinct remembrance of the original language which they spoke before, as made them speak it very differently: but the most common, opinion is, that God caused the builders actually to forget their former language, and each family to speak a new tongue; whence originated the various languages at present in the world. It is, however, but of little consequence to know precisely how this was effected, as the Scriptures are silent as to the manner of it; and after all that can be said, it is but conjecture still. There are some truths, however, we may learn from this part of sacred writ.--1. It teaches us God's sovereignty and power, by which he can easily blast the greatest attempts of men to aggrandize themselves, Gen. xi. 7,8.--2. God's justice in punishing of those who, in idolizing their own fame, forget him to whom praise is due. ver. 4.--3. God's wisdom in overruling evil for good; for by this confusion he facilitated the dispersion of mankind, in order to execute his own purposes, ver.8,9. See Henry and Gill in loc. Stillingfleet's Orig. Sac. 1. iii. c. v. $2-4; Shuckford's con. vol. i. p. 124-140; Vitringa's Obs. vol. i. diss. 1.c.ix. LeClerc's Diss. No. vi. Hutchinson on the Confusion of Tongues; Bp. Law's Theory of Religion, p.66.
An assembly of people met together for religious worship. The term has been also used for assemblies of cardinals appointed by the pope for the discharge of certain functions, after the manner of our offices and courts; such as the congregation of the inquisition, the congregation of rites of alms, &c.&c.--It also signifies a company or society of religious persons cantoned out of this or that order and making an inferior order, &c. Such are the congregations of the Oratory; those of Clupy,&c. among the Benedictines.
A denomination of Protestants who reject all church government, except that of a single congregation under the direction of one pastor, with their elders, assistants, or managers. See CHURCH.
A denomination which appeared in the sixth century. They derived their name from Conon, bishop of Tarsus. He taught that the body never lost its form; that its matter alone was subject to corruption and decay, and was to be restored when this mortal shall put on immortality.
Signifies knowledge in conjunction; that is, in
conjunction with the fact to which it is a witness, as the eye is to the action
done before it; or, as South observes, it is a double or joint knowledge,
namely, one of a divine law or rule, and the other of a man's own action. It
may be defined to be the judgment which a man passes on the morality of his
actions as to their purity or turpitude; or the secret testimony of the soul,
whereby it approves things that are good, and condemns those that are evil.
Some object to its being called an act, habit, or faculty. An act, say they,
would be represented as an agent, whereas conscience is a testimony. To say it
is a habit, is to speak of it as a disposition acting, which is scarce more
accurate than ascribing one act to another; and, besides, it would be strange
language to say that conscience itself is a habit. Against defining it by the
name of a power or faculty, it is objected, that it occasions a false notion of
it, as a distinct power from reason.
The rules of conscience. We must distinguish
between a rule that of itself and immediately binds the conscience, and a rule
that is occasionally of use to direct and satisfy the conscience. Now in the
first sense the will of God is the only rule immediately binding the
conscience. No one has authority over the conscience but God. All penal laws,
therefore, in matters of mere conscience, or things that do not evidently
affect the civil state, are certainly unlawful; yet, secondly, the commands of
superiors, not only natural parents, but civil, as magistrates or masters, and
every man's private engagements, are rules of conscience in things
indifferent.--3. The examples of wise and good men may become rules of
conscience: but here it must be observed, that no example or judgment is of any
authority against law: where the law is doubtful, and even where there is no
doubt, the side of example cannot be taken till enquiry has been first made
concerning what the law directs.
Conscience has been considered, as, 1. Natural,
or that common principle which instructs men of all countries and religions in
the duties to which they are all alike obliged. There seems to be something of
this in the minds of all men. Even in the darkest regions of the earth, and
among the rudest tribes of men, a distinction has ever been made between just
and unjust, a duty, and a crime.
2. A right conscience is that which decides
aright, or, according to the only rule of rectitude, the law of God. This is
also called a well-informed conscience, which in all its decisions proceeds
upon the most evident principles of truth.
3. A probable conscience is that which, in cases
which admit of the brightest and fullest light, contents itself with bare
probabilities. The consciences of many are of no higher character; and though
we must not say a man cannot be saved with such a conscience, yet such a
conscience is not so perfect as it might be.
4. An ignorant conscience is that which may
declare right, but, as it were, by chance, and without any just ground to build
on.
5. An erroneous conscience is a conscience
mistaken in its decisions about the nature of actions.
6. A doubting conscience is a conscience
unresolved about the nature of actions; on account of the equal or nearly equal
probabilities which appear for and against each side of the question.
7. Of an evil conscience there are several kinds.
Conscience, in regard to actions in general, is evil when it has lost more or
less the sense it ought to have of the natural distinctions of moral good and
evil: this is a polluted or defiled conscience. Conscience is evil in itself
when it gives either none or a false testimony as to past actions; when
reflecting upon wickedness it feels no pains, it is evil, and said to be seared
or hardened, 1 Tim. iv. 2. It is also evil when during the commission of sin it
lies quiet. In regard to future actions, conscience is evil if it does not
startle at the proposal of sin, or connives at the commission of it.
For the right management of conscience, we
should, 1. Endeavour to obtain acquaintance with the law of God, and with our
own tempers and lives, and frequently compare them together.
2. Furnish conscience with general principles of
the most extensive nature and strongest influence; such as the supreme love of
God; love to our neighbours as ourselves; and that the care of our souls is of
the greatest importance.
3. Preserve the purity of conscience.
4. Maintain the freedom of conscience,
particularly against interest, passion, temper, example, and the authority of
great names.
5. We should accustom ourselves to cool
reflections on our past actions. See Grove's and Paley's Moral Philosophy;
South's Sermons, vol. ii. sermon 12; and books under CASUISTRY.
The perception of what passes in a man's own mind. We must not confound the terms consciousness and conscience; for though the Latin be ignorant of any such distinction, including both in the word conscientia, yet there is a great deal or difference between them in our language. Consciousness is confined to the actions of the mind, being nothing else but that knowledge of itself which is inseparable from every thought and voluntary motion of the soul. Conscience extends to all human actions, bodily as well as mental. Consciousness is the knowledge of the existence; conscience of the moral nature of actions. Consciousness is a province of metaphysics, conscience of morality.
A rite or ceremony of dedicating things or
persons to the service of God. It is used for the benediction of the elements
at the eucharist: the ordination of bishops is also called consecration.
The Mosaical law ordained that all the
first-born, both of man and beast, should be sanctified or consecrated to God.
We find also, that Joshua consecrated the Gibeonites, as David and Solomon did
the Nethinims, to the service of the temple; and that the Hebrews sometimes
consecrated their fields and cattle to the Lord, after which they were no
longer in their power. Among the ancient Christians, the consecration of
churches was performed with a great deal of pious solemnity. In what manner it
was done for the first three ages is uncertain, the authentic accounts reaching
no higher than the fourth century, when, in the peaceable reign of Constantine,
churches were every where built and dedicated with great solemnity. The
Romanists have a great deal of foppery in the ceremonies of consecration, which
they bestow on almost every thing; as bells, candles, books, water, oil, ashes,
palms, swords, banners, pictures, crosses, agnus deis, roses, &c. In
England, churches have been always consecrated with particular ceremonies, the
form of which was left to the discretion of the bishop. That observed by Abp.
Laud, in consecrating Saint Catherine Cree church in London, gave great
offence, and well it might. It was enough, as one observes, to have made even a
popish cardinal blush, and which no Protestant can read but with indignant
concern. "The bishop, came attended with several of the high commission,
and some civilians. At his approach to the west door of the church, which was
shut, and guarded by halberdeers, some that were appointed for that purpose
cried with a loud voice--Open, open, ye everlasting doors, that the King of
Glory may come in! Presently the doors were opened, and the bishop, with some
doctors and principal men entered. As soon as they were within the place, his
lordship fell down upon his knees; and, with his eyes lifted up, and his arms
spread abroad, said, This place is holy; the ground is holy: in the name of the
Father,Son, and Holy Ghost, I pronounce it holy. Then, walking up the middle
aisle towards the chancel, he took up some of the dust, and threw it into the
air several times. When he approached near the rail of the communion table, he
bowed towards it five or six times; and, returning, went round the church, with
his attendants in procession; saying first the hundredth and then the
nineteenth Psalm, as prescribed in the Roman Pontifical. He then read several
collects, in one of which he prays God to accept of that beautiful building,
and concludes thus: We consecrate this church, and separate it unto thee as
Holy Ground, not to be profaned any more to common use. In another he
prays--That ALL who should hereafter be buried within the circuit of this holy
and sacred place, may rest in their sepulchres in peace, till Christ's coming
to judgment, and may then rise to eternal life and happiness. Then the bishop,
sitting under a cloth of state in the aisle of the chancel, near the communion
table, took a written book in his hand, and pronounced curses upon those who
should hereafter profane that holy place by musters of soldiers, or keeping
profane law courts, or carrying burdens through it; and at the end of every
curse he bowed to the east, and said, Let all the people say, Amen. When the
curses were ended, which were about twenty, he pronounced a like number of
blessings upon ALL that had any hand in framing and building that sacred and
beautiful church; and on those that had given, or should hereafter give, any
chalices, plate, ornaments, or other utensils; and, at the end of every
blessing, he bowed to the east, and said, Let all the people say, Amen. After
this came the sermon, then the sacrament, which the bishop consecrated and
administered in the following manner:--As he approached the altar, he made five
or six low bows; and coming up to the side of it, where the bread and wine were
covered, he bowed seven times. Then, after reading many prayers, he came near
the bread, and, gently lifting up the corner of the napkin, beheld it; and
immediately letting fall the napkin, he retreated hastily a step or two, and
made three low obeisances: his lordship then advanced, and, having uncovered
the bread, bowed three times as before. Then he laid his hand on the cup, which
was full of wine, with a cover upon it; which having let go, he stepped back,
and bowed three times towards it; then he came near again, and lifting up the
cover of the cup, looked in it; and seeing the wine, let fall the cover again,
retired back, and bowed as before. Then the elements were consecrated; and the
bishop, having first received, gave it to some principal men in their
surplices, hoods, and tippets; after which, many prayers being said, the
solemnity of the consecration ended."
A kind of penitents, who were allowed to assist at prayers, but who could not be admitted to receive the sacrament.
A word commonly used for a council house of ecclesiastical persons, or place of justice in the spiritual court: a session or assembly of prelates. Every archbishop and bishop of every diocese hath a consistory court, held before his chancellor or commissary, in his catherdral church, or other convenient place of his diocese for ecclesiastical causes. The bishop's chancellor is the judge of this court, supposed to be skilled in the civil and canon law; and in places of the diocese far remote from the bishop's consistory, the bishop appoints a commissary to judge in all causes within a certain district, and a register to enter his decrees, &c. Consistory at Rome, denotes the college of cardinals, or the pope's senate and council, before whom judiciary causes are pleaded. Consistory is also used among the reformed for a council or assembly of ministers and elders to regulate their affairs, discipline, &c.
In a general sense, denotes immutability, or invariableness.
When applied to the human mind, it is a steady adherence to those schemes and
resolutions which have been maturely formed; the effect of which is, that a man
never drops a good design out of fear, and is consistent with himself in all
his words and actions.
Constancy is more particularly required of
us.--1. In our devotions, Luke xviii. 1. 1 Thess. v. 17,18.--2. Under our
sufferings, Matt. v. 12,13. 1 Pet. iv. 12,13.--3. In our profession and
character, Heb. x. 23.--4. In our beneficence, Gal. vi. 9.--5. In our
friendships, Prov. xxvii. 10.
A term of like import with co-essential, denoting something of the same substance with another. Thus we say that Christ is consubstantial with the Father. The term consubstantial was first adopted by the fathers of the councils of Antioch and Nice, to express the orthodox doctrine the more precisely, and to serve as a barrier and precaution against the errors and subleties of the Arians, who owned every thing except the consubstantiality. The Arians allowed that the word was God, as having been made God; but they denied that he was the same God, and of the same substance with the Father: accordingly they exerted themselves to the utmost to abolish the use of the word. The emperor Constantine used all his authority with the bishops to have it expunged out of the symbols; but it was retained and is at this day, as it was then, the distinguishing criterion between an Athanasian and an Arian. See articles ARIANS, and JESUS CHRIST.
A tenet of the Lutheran church, with regard to the manner of the change made in the bread and wine in the eucharist. The divines of that profession maintain that, after consecration, the body and blood of our Saviour are substantially present, together with the substance of the bread and wine, which is called consubstantiation, or impanation. See TRANSUBSTANTIATION.
Studious thought on any subject; continued attention. "Monks and mystics consider contemplation as the highest degree of moral excellence; and with them a silent spectator is a divine man:" but it is evident we are not placed here only to think. There is something to be done as well as to contemplate. There are duties to be performed, offices to be discharged: and if we wish to be happy in ourselves, and useful to others, we must be active as well as thoughtful.
Is a disposition of mind in which our desires are confined to what we enjoy, without murmuring at our lot, or wishing ardently for more. It stands opposed to envy, James iii. 16. to avarice, Heb. xiii. 5. to pride and ambition, Prov. xiii. 10. to anxiety of mind, Matt. vi. 25, 34. to murmurings and repinings, 1 Cor. x.10. Contentment does not imply unconcern about our welfare, or that we should not have a sense of any thing uneasy or distressing; nor does it give any countenance to idleness, or prevent diligent endeavours to improve our circumstances. It implies, however, that our desires of worldly good be moderate; that we do not indulge unnecessary care, or use unlawful efforts to better ourselves; but that we acquiesce with and make the best of our condition, whatever it be. Contentment arises not from a man's outward condition, but from his inward disposition, and is the genuine offspring of humility, attended with a fixed habitual sense of God's particular providence, the recollection of past mercies, and a just estimate of the true nature of all earthly things Motives to contentment arise from the consideration of the rectitude of the Divine government, Ps. xcvii. 1,2. the benignity of the Divine providence, Ps. cxlv. the greatness of the Divine promises, 2 Pet. i. 4. our own unworthiness, Gen. xxxii. 10. the punishments we deserve, Lam. iii. 39,40. the reward which contentment itself brings with it, 1 Tim. vi. 6. the speedy termination of all our troubles here, and the prospect of eternal felicity in a future state, Rom. v. 2. Barrow's Works, vol. iii. ser. 5,6,7,8,9; Burroughs on Contentment; Watson's Art of ditto; Hale's Con. p 59; Mason's Christian Morals, vol. i. ser.2.
Is that moral virtue by which we restrain concupiscence. There is this distinction between, chastity and continence:--Chastity requires no effort, because it may result from constitution; whereas continency appears to be the consequence of a victory gained over ourselves. The term is most usually applied to men; as chastity is to women. See CHASTITY.
Any thing that happens without a fore-known cause; commonly called accidental. An event not come to pass is said to be contingent, which either may or may not be: what is already done, is said to have been contingent, if it might or might not have been. What is contingent or casual to us is not so with God. As effects stand related to a second cause, they are many times contingent; but as they stand related to the first cause, they are acts of God's counsel, and directed by his wisdom.
This word signifies beaten or bruised, as with
hard blows, or an heaver burden; and so in Scripture language imports one whose
heart is broken and wounded for sin, on opposition to the heart of stone, Is.
lxvi. 2. Ps. li. 17. Ps. lvii. 15.
The evidences of a broken and contrite spirit
are, 1. Deep conviction of the evil of sin.--2. Humiliation under a sense of
it, Job xlii. 5,6.--3. Pungent sorrow for it, Zech. xii. 10.--4. Ingenuous
confession of it, 1 John i. 9.--5. Prayer for deliverance from it, Ps. li. 10.
Luke xviii. 13.--6. Susceptibility of good impressions, Ezek. xi. 19.
See DISPUTATION.
See ABBEY, MONASTERY, MONK.
A diminutive of convent, denoting properly a
cabal, or secret assembly of a part of the monks of a convent, to make a party
in the election of an abbot. The term conventicle is said by some to have been
first applied in England to the schools of Wickliffe, and has been since used
in a way of reproach for those assemblies which dissent from the established
church.
In 1664, what was called the conventicle act was passed,
decreeing that if any person above 16 years of age, was present at any meeting
for worship, different from the church of England, where there should be five
persons more than the household, they should for the first offence, suffer
three months imprisonment, or pay 5l. for the second the punishment is doubled,
and for the third they were to be banished to America, or pay 100l. and if they
returned to suffer death. This act having expired, it was revived in 1669, for
by 22 Car. II. cap. 1. it is enacted, That if any persons of the age of sixteen
years, subjects of this kingdom, shall be present at any conventicle where
there are five or more assembled, they shall be fined five shillings for the
first offence, and ten shillings for the second: and persons preaching, incur a
penalty of twenty pounds. Also suffering a meeting to be held in a house is
twenty pounds penalty: justices of peace have power to enter such houses, and
seize persons assembled: and if they neglect their duty, they forfeit 100l. And
if any constable, &c. know of such proceedings, and do not inform a justice
of peace or chief magistrate, he shall forfeit 5l. But the 1st of William and
Mary, cap. 18. ordains that Protestant dissenters shall be exempted from these
penalties; though if they meet in a house with the doors locked, barred, or
bolted, such dissenters shall have no benefit from the 1st of William and Mary.
Officers of the government, &c. present at any conventicle at which there
shall be ten persons, if the royal family be not prayed for in express words,
shall forfeit 40l. and be disabled, Stat. 10. Anne. cap.2.
Or discourse, signifies an interlocution between
two or more persons, with this distinction, that conversation is used for any
general intercourse of sentiments whatever, whereas a discourse means a
conversation limited to some particular subject.
To render conversation at all times agreeable,
the following rules have been laid down, 1. The parties should meet together
with a determined resolution to please and to be pleased.--2. No one should be
eager to interrupt others, or be uneasy at being interrupted.--3. All should
have leave to speak in turn.--4. Inattention should be carefully avoided.--5.
Private concerns should never be mentioned, unless particularly enquired into,
and even then as briefly as possible.--6. Each person should, as far as
propriety will admit, be afforded an opportunity of discoursing on the subject
with which he is best acquainted.--7. Stories should be avoided, unless short,
pointed, and quite a propos.--8. Each person should speak often, but not long.
Haranguing in private company is insupportable.--9. If the majority of the
company be naturally silent or reserved, the conversation will flag, unless it
be often renewed by one who can start new subjects.--10. It is improper to
laugh at one's own wit and humour; this should be left to the company.--11.
When the conversation is flowing in a serious and useful channel, never interrupt
it by an ill-timed jest.--12. It is at all times extremely indelicate to
whisper to one's next neighbour: this is in some degree a fraud, conversation
being a kind of common property.--13. In speaking of absent people, the
infallible rule is, to say no more than we should say if they were present.
"I resolve," said bishop Beveridge, "never to speak of a man's
virtues to his face, nor of his faults behind his back." A golden rule!
the observation of which would at once banish flattery and defamation from the
world.
A change from one state to another. Conversion may be 1. Merely external, or that which consists only in an outward reformation.--2. Doctrinal, or a change of sentiments.--3. Saving, which consists in the renovation of the heart and life, or a turning from the power of sin and Satan unto God, Acts xxvi. 18. and is produced by the influence of Divine grace on the soul.--4. Sometimes it is put for restoration, as in the case of Peter, Luke xxii. 32. The instrumental cause of conversion is usually the ministry of the word; though sometimes it is produced by reading, by serious and appropriate conversation sanctified afflictions, &c. "Conversion," says the great Charnock, "is to be distinguished from regeneration thus--Regeneration is a spiritual change; conversion is a spiritual motion: in regeneration there is a power conferred; conversion is the exercise of this power: in regeneration there is given us a principle to turn; conversion is our actual turning. In the covenant, God's putting his Spirit into us is distinguished from our walking in his statutes from the first step we take in the way of God, and is set down as the cause of our motion, Ezek. xxxvi. 27. In renewing us, God gives us a power; in converting us, he excites that power. Men are naturally dead, and have a stone upon them: regeneration is a rolling away the stone from the heart, and a raising to newness of life; and then conversion is as natural to a regenerate man as motion is to a lively body. A principle of activity will produce action. In regeneration, man is wholly passive; in conversion, he is active. The first reviving us is wholly the act of God, without any concurrence of the creature; but after we are revived we do actively and voluntarily live in his sight. Regeneration is the motion of God in the creature; conversion is the motion of the creature to God, by virtue of that first principle: from this principle all the acts of believing, repenting, mortifying, quickening do spring. In all these a man is active; in the other he is merely passive." Conversion evidences itself by ardent love to God, Ps. lxxiii. 25. delight in his people, John xiii. 35. attendance on his ordinances, Ps. xxvii. 4. confidence in his promises, Ps. ix. 10. abhorrence of self, and renunciation of the world, Job xlii. 5. James iv. 4. submission to his authority, and uniform obedience to his word, Matt. vii. 20. See CALLING, REGENERATION.
A person who is converted. In a monastic sense, converts are lay friars, or brothers admitted for the service of the house, without orders, and not allowed to sing in the choir.
In general, is the assurance of the truth of any proposition. In a religious sense, it is the first degree of repentance, and implies an affecting sense that we are guilty before God; that we can do nothing of ourselves to gain his forfeited favour; that we deserve and are exposed to the wrath of God; that sin is very odious and hateful, yea, the greatest of evils. There is a natural conviction which arises from natural conscience, fear of punishment, moral suasion, or alarming providences, but which is not of a permanent nature. Saving conviction is the work of the Spirit, as the cause; though the law, the conscience, the Gospel, or affliction, may be the means, John xvi. 8,9. Convictions of sin differ very much in their degree in different persons. It has been observed that those who suffer the most agonizing sensations are such as never before enjoyed the external call of the Gospel, or were not favoured with the tuition of religious parents, but have neglected or notoriously abused the means of grace. To these, conviction is often sudden, and produces that horror and shame which are not soon overcome; whereas those who have sat under the Gospel from their infancy have not had such alarming convictions, because they have already some notion of these things, and have so much acquaintance with the Gospel as administers immediate comfort. As it is not, therefore, the constant method of the Spirit to convince in one way, it is improper for any to distress themselves because they are not, or have not been tormented almost to despair: they should be rather thankful that the Spirit of God has dealt tenderly with them, and opened to them the source of consolation. It is necessary however to observe, that, in order to repentance and conversion to God, there must be real and lasting conviction, which, though it may not be the same in degree, is the same in nature. Evangelical conviction differs from legal conviction thus: legal arises from a consideration of God's justice, power, or omniscience; evangelical from God's goodness and holiness, and from a disaffection to sin: legal conviction still conceits there is some remaining good; but evangelical is sensible there is no good at all: legal wishes freedom from pain; evangelical from sin: legal hardens the heart; evangelical softens it: legal is only temporary; evangelical lasting.
An assembly of persons for the worship of God,
Lev. xxiii. Numb. xxviii. Exod. xii. 16. An assembly of the clergy for
consultation upon matters ecclesiastical.
As the parliament consists of two distinct
houses, so does this convocation. the one called the upper house, where the
archbishops and bishops sit severally by themselves; the other the lower house,
where all the rest of the clergy are represented by their deputies.--The
inferior clergy are represented by their proctors; consisting of all the deans
and archdeacons; of one proctor for every chapter, and two for the clergy, of
every diocese--in all, one hundred and forty-three divines, viz. twenty-two
deans, fifty-three archdeacons, twenty-four prebendaries, and forty-four
proctors of the diocesan clergy. The lower house chooses its prolocutor, who is
to take care that the members attend, to collect their debates and votes, and
to carry their resolutions to the upper house. The convocations is summoned by
the king's writ, directed to the archbishop of each province, requiring him to
summon all bishops, deans, archdeacons, &c. The power of the convocation is
limited by a statute of Henry VIII. they are not to make any canons, or
ecclesiastical laws, without the king's license; nor, when permitted, can they
put them in execution but under several restrictions.--They have the examining
and censuring all heretical and schismatical books and persons, &c; but
there lies an appeal to the king in chancery, or to his delegates. The clergy
in convocation, and their servants, have the same privileges as members of
parliament. In 1665, the convocation of the clergy gave up the privilege of taxing
themselves to the house of commons, in consideration of their being allowed to
vote at the election of members for that house. Since that period they have
been seldom allowed to do any business; and are generally prorogued from time
to time till dissolved, a new convocation being generally called along with a
new parliament.
COPHT, or COPTI, a name given to the Christians of Egypt who are of the sect of the Jacobites. See JACOBITES. The Cophts have a patriarch, who resides at Cairo; but he takes his title from Alexandria. He has no archbishop under him, but eleven or twelve bishops. The rest of the clergy, whether secular or regular, are composed of the orders of St. Anthony, St. Paul, St. Macarius, who have each their monasteries. Besides the orders of priests, deacons, and sub-deacons, the Cophts have, likewise, archimandrites, or abbots; the dignity whereof they confer with all the prayers and ceremonies of a strict ordination. By a custom of six hundred years standing, if a priest elected bishop be not already archimandrite, that dignity must be conferred on him before episcopal ordination. The second person among the clergy after the patriarch is the titular patriarch of Jerusalem, who also resides at Cairo. To him belongs the government of the Cophtic church during the vacancy of the patriarchal see. To be elected patriarch, it is necessary the person have lived all his life in continence. To be elected bishop, the person must be in the celibate; or if he have been married, it must not be above once. The priests and inferior ministers are allowed to be married before ordination; but, not forced to it, as some have observed. They have a great number of deacons, and even confer the dignity frequently on their children. None but the lowest rank among the people commence ecclesiastics: whence arises that excessive ignorance found among them; yet the respect of the laity towards the clergy is very extraordinary. The monastic life is in great esteem among them: to be admitted into it, there is always required the consent of the bishop. the religious Cophts, it is said, make a vow of perpetual chastity; renounce the world, and live with great austerity in deserts: they are obliged to sleep in their clothes and their girdle, on a mat stretched on the ground; and to prostrate themselves every evening one hundred and fifty times with their face and breast on the ground. They are all, both men and women, of the lowest class of the people, and live on alms. the nunneries are properly hospitals, and few enter but widows reduced to beggary.
In Jewish antiquity, were those offerings which had life; in opposition to the minchab, or those which had not. It is derived from the word karab, which signifies, "to approach;" because the victims were brought to the door of the tabernacle. The corban were always looked upon as the most sacred offerings. The Jews are reproached with defeating, by means of the corban, the precept of the fifth commandment, which enjoins the respect due to parents; for when a child had no mind to relieve the wants of his father or mother, he would say to them--"It is a gift (corban) by whatsoever thou mightest be profited by me;" i.e. "I have devoted that to God which you ask of me, and it is no longer mine to give." Mark vii. 11.
A Franciscan, or religious of the order of St. Francis. The denomination cordelier, is said to have been given in the war of St. Lewis against the infidels, wherein the friars minor having repulsed the barbarians, and that king having enquired their name, it was answered, they were people cordeliez, "tied with ropes;" alluding to the girdle of rope, or cord, ties with three knots, which they wore as part of their habit.
The disciples of Theodore Cornhert, an enthusiastic secretary of the states of Holland. He wrote, at the same time, against the Catholics, Lutherans, and Calvinists. He maintained that every religious communion needed reformation; but he added, that no person had a right to engage in accomplishing it without a mission supported by miracles. He was also of opinion, that a person might be a good Christian without being a member of any visible church.
A contract, or agreement between two or more
parties on certain terms. The terms are made use of in the Scriptures for
covenant in Hebrew and Greek. The former signifies choosing, or friendly
parting; as in covenants each party, in a friendly manner, consented, and so
bound himself to the chosen terms; the latter signifies testament, as all the
blessings of the covenant are freely disposed to us. The word covenant is also
used for an immutable ordinance, Jer. xxxiii. 20. a promise, Exod. xxxiv. 10.
Is. lix. 21. and also for a precept, Jer. xxxiv. 13,14. In Scripture we read of
various convenants; such as those made with Noah, Abraham, and the Hebrews at
large. Anciently covenants were made and ratified with great solemnity. The
Scriptures allude to the cutting of animals asunder; denoting that, in the same
manner, the perjured and covenant-breaker should be cut asunder by the
vengeance of God, Jer. xxxiv. 18.
The covenants which more especially relate to the
human race, are generally called the covenant of works and the covenant of
grace.
The covenant of works is that whereby God requires
perfect obedience from his creatures, in such a manner as to make no express
provision for the pardon of offences, committed against the precepts of it on
the repentance of such offenders, but pronounces a sentence of death upon them,
Gen. ii. Gal. iv. 24. Ps. lxxxix. 3,4. The covenant of grace is generally
defined to be that which was made with Christ, as the second Adam, and in him
with all the elect as his seed, Isa. xlii. 1-6. 1 Pet. i. 20. Is. lii. 13.
I. the covenant of works was made with Adam; the
condition of which was, his perseverance during the whole time of his
probation; the reward annexed to this obedience was the continuance of him and
his posterity in such perfect holiness and felicity he then had while upon
earth, and everlasting life with God hereafter. The penalty threatened for the
breach of the command was condemnation; terminating in death temporal,
spiritual, and eternal. The seals of this covenant were, the tree of knowledge
and the tree of life; and, perhaps, the Sabbath and Paradise, Gen. ii. iii.
Gal. vi. 24. Rom. v. 12,19. This covenant was broken by Adam's eating of the
forbidden fruit, whereby he and his posterity were all subject to ruin, Gen.
iii. Rom. v. 12,19; and without the intervention of the divine grace and mercy,
would have been lost for ever, Rom. iii. 23. The Divine Being, foreseeing this,
in infinite wisdom and unspeakable compassion planned the covenant of grace; by
virtue of which his people are reinstated in the blessings of purity,
knowledge, and felicity, and that without a possibility of any farther
defalcation.
II. The covenant of grace. Some divines make a
distinction between the covenant of redemption and that of grace; the former,
they say, was made with Christ in eternity; the latter with believers in time.
Others object to this, and suppose it a needless distinction; for there is but
one covenant of grace, and not two, in which the head and members are
concerned; and, besides, the covenant of grace, properly speaking, could not be
made between God and man; for what can man restipulate with God, which is in
his power to do or give him, and which God has not a prior right unto? Fallen
man has neither inclination to yield obedience, nor power to perform it. The
parties, therefore, in this covenant, are generally said to be the Father and
the Son; but Dr. Gill supposes that the Holy Ghost should not be excluded,
since he is promised in it, and in consequence of it, is sent down into the
hearts of believers; and which must be by agreement, and with his consent. If
we believe, therefore, in a Trinity, it is more proper to suppose that they
were all engaged in this plan of the covenant, than to suppose that the Father
and Son were engaged exclusive of the Holy Spirit, 1 John v. 6,7. As to the
work of the Son, it was the will and appointment of the Father that he should
take the charge and care of his people, John vi. 39. Heb. ii. 13, redeem them
by his blood, John xvii. Heb. x. obey the law in their room, Rom. x. 4. justify
them by his righteousness, Dan. ix. 24, &c., and finally, preserve them to
glory, Is. xl. 11. Jesus Christ, according to the divine purpose, became the
representative and covenant head of his people, Eph. i. 22,23. Col.i. 18. They
were all considered in him, and represented by him, Eph. i. 4. promises of
grace and glory made to them in him, Tit. i. 2. 1 Cor. i. 20. he suffered in
their stead. 2 Cor. v. 21. He is also to be considered as the mediator of the
covenant by whom justice is satisfied, and man reconciled to God. See art. MEDIATOR.
He is also the surety of this covenant, Heb. vii. 22. as he took the whole debt
upon him, freed his people from the charge, obeyed the law, and engaged to
bring his people to glory, Heb. ii. 13. Is. xlix. 5,6. He is called the
testator of the covenant, which is denominated a Testament, Heb. vii. 22. Heb.
ix. 15. He disposes of his blessings according to his will or testament, which
is unalterable, signed by his hand, and sealed by his blood. In this covenant,
as we before observed, the Holy Spirit also is engaged. His assent is given to
every part thereof; he brings his people into the enjoyment of its blessings, 1
Pet. i. 2. 2 Thess. ii. 13. He was concerned in the incarnation of Christ,
Matt. i. 18. and assisted his human nature, Heb. ix. 14. He takes of the things
of Christ, and shows them unto us; cleanses, enlightens, sanctifies,
establishes, and comforts his people, according to the plan of the covenant,
Rom. viii. 15,16. See HOLY GHOST.
III. The properties of this covenant are such as
these: 1. It is eternal, being made before time, Eph. i. 3,4. 2 Tim. i. 9.--2.
Divine as to its origin, springing entirely from free grace, Rom. xi. 5,6. Ps.
lxxxix. 2,3,28.--3. It is absolute and unconditional, Eph. ii. 8,9.--4. It is
perfect and complete, wanting nothing, 2 Sam. xxiii 5.--5. It is sure and
immoveable, Isa. liv. 10. Isa. lv. 3.--6. Called new in opposition to the old,
and as its blessings will be always new, Heb. viii. 6,8.
IV. These two covenants above-mentioned agree in
some things, in others they differ. 1. "In both," says Witsius,
"the parties concerned are God, and man.--2. In both, the same promise of
eternal life.--3. The condition of both is the same, perfect obedience to the
law prescribed; for it is not worthy of God to admit man to a blessed communion
with him but in the way of holiness.--4. In Both is the same end, the glory of
God. But they differ in the following respects: 1. In the covenant of works,
the character or relation of God is that of a supreme lawgiver, and the chief good
rejoicing to communicate happiness to his creatures. In the covenant of grace
he appears as infinitely merciful, adjudging life to the elect sinner,
agreeably to his wisdom and justice.--2. In the covenant of works there was no
mediator: the covenant of grace has a mediator, Christ.--3. In the covenant of
works, the condition of perfect obedience was required to be performed by man
himself in covenant. In the covenant of grace the same condition is proposed,
but to be performed by a mediator.--4. In the covenant of works man is
considered as working, and the reward as to be given of debt. In the covenant
of grace the man in covenant is considered as believing; eternal life being
given as the merit of the mediator, out of free grace, which excludes all boasting.--5.
In the covenant of works something is required as a condition, which being
performed entitles to reward. The covenant of grace consists not of conditions,
but of promises: the life to be obtained; faith, by which we are made partakers
of Christ; perseverance, and, in a word, the whole of salvation, are absolutely
promised.--6. The special end of the covenant of works was the manifestation of
the holiness, goodness, and justice of God; but the special end of the covenant
of grace, is the praise of the glory of his grace, and the revelation of his
unsearchable and manifold wisdom."--7. The covenant of works was only for
a time, but the covenant of grace stands sure for ever.
V. The administration of the covenant of
grace.--The covenant of grace, under the Old Testament, was exhibited by
promises, sacrifices, types, ordinances, and prophecies. Under the New it is
administered in the preaching of the Gospel, baptism, and the Lord's supper; in
which grace and salvation are held forth in more fulness, evidence, and
efficacy to all nations, 2 Cor. iii. 6-18. Heb. viii. Matt. xxviii. 19,20. But
in both periods, the mediator, the whole substance, blessings, and manner of
obtaining an interest therein by faith, are the very same, without any
difference, Heb. xi. 6. Gal. iii. 7.14. The reader, who may wish to have a more
enlarged view of this subject, may peruse Witsius, Strong, or Boston on the
Covenants, in the former of which especially he will find the subject masterly
handled.
CONVENANT, in ecclesiastical history, denotes a
contract or convention agreed to by the Scotch, in the year 1638, for
maintaining their religion free from innovation. In 1581, the general assembly
of Scotland drew up a confession of faith, or national covenant, condemning episcopal
government, under the name of hierarchy, which was signed by James I. and which
he enjoined on all his subjects. It was again subscribed in 1590 and 1596. The
subscription was renewed in 1638, and the subscribers engaged by oath to
maintain religion in the same state as it was in 1580, and to reject all
innovations introduced since that time. This oath, annexed to the confession of
faith, received the name of Covenant, as those who subscribed it were called
Covenanters.
Solemn league and covenant, was established in
the year 1643, and formed a bond of union between Scotland and England. It was
sworn to and subscribed by many in both nations; who hereby solemnly abjured
popery and prelacy, and combined together for their mutual defence. It was approved
by the parliament and assembly at Westminister, and ratified by the general
assembly of Scotland in 1645. King Charles I. disapproved of it when he
surrendered himself to the Scots army in 1646; but, in 1650, Charles Ii.
declared his approbation both of this and the national covenant by a solemn
oath; and, in August of the same year, made a farther declaration at
Dunfermline to the same purpose, which was also renewed on occasion of his
coronation at Scone, in 1651. The covenant was ratified by parliament in this
year; and the subscription of it was required by every member, without which,
the constitution of the parliament was declared null and void. It produced a
series of distractions in the subsequent history of that country, and was voted
illegal by parliament, and provision made against it. Stat. 14. Car. 2,c.4.
An unreasonable desire after that we have not, with a dissatisfaction with what we have. It may farther be considered as consisting in, 1. An anxious carking care about the things of this world.--2. A rapacity in getting.--3. Too frequently includes sinister and illegal ways of obtaining wealth.--4. A tenaciousness in keeping. It is a vice which marvellously prevails upon and insinuates into the heart of man, and for these reasons: it often bears a near resemblance to virtue; brings with it man plausible reasons; and raises a man to a state of reputation on account of his riches. "There cannot be," as one observes, "a more unreasonable sin than this. It is unjust; only to covet, is to wish to be unjust. It is cruel: the covetous must harden themselves against a thousand plaintive voices. It is foolish: it destroys reputation, breaks the rest, unfits for the performance of duty, and is a contempt of God himself: it is unprecedented in all our examples of virtue mentioned in the Scripture. One, indeed, spoke unadvisedly with his lips; another cursed and swore; a third was in a passion; and a fourth committed adultery; but which of the saints ever lived in a habit of covetousness? Lastly, it is idolatry, Col.iii. 5. the idolatry of the heart; where, as in a temple, the miserable wretch excludes God, sets up gold instead of him, and places that confidence in it which belongs to the Great Supreme alone." Let those who live in the habitual practice of it consider the judgments that have been inflicted on such characters, Josh. vii. 21. Acts v.; the misery with which it is attended; the curse such persons are to society; the denunciations and cautions respecting it in the Holy Scripture; and how effectually it bars men from God, from happiness, and from heaven. Scott's Essays, 72,73. South's Serm., vol. iv. ser. 1; Robinson's Mor. Exercises, ex. iv; Saurin's Serm., vol. v. ser. 12. Eng. Trans.
An assembly of persons met together for the
purpose of consultation: an assembly of deputies or commissioners sent from
several churches, associated by certain bonds in a general body, Acts i. vi.
xv. xxi.
council, Oecumenical or General, is an assembly
which represents the whole body of the Christian church. The Romanists reckon
eighteen of them Bullinger six, Dr. Prideaux seven, and bishop Beveridge eight,
which, he says, are all the general councils which have ever been held since
the time of the first Christian emperor. They are as follow:--1. The council of
Nice, held in the reign of Constantine the Great, on account of the heresy of
Arius.--2. the council of Constantinople, called under the reign and by the
command of Theodosius the Great, for much the same end that the former council
was summoned.--3. The council of Ephesus, convened by Theodosius the Younger,
and the suit of Nestorius.--4. The council at Chalcedon, held in the reign of
Martianus, which approved of the Eutychian heresy.--5. the second council of
Constantinople, assembled by the emperor Justinian, condemned the three
chapters taken out of the book of Theodorus, of Mopsuestia, having first
decided that it was lawful to anathematize the dead. Some authors tell us that
they likewise condemned the several errors of Origen about the Trinity, the
plurality of worlds, and pre-existence of souls.--6. The third council of
Constantinople, held by the command of Constantius Pogonatus, the emperor, in
which they received the definitions of the first five general councils, and
particularly that against Origen and Theodorus, of Mopsuestia.--7. The second
Nicene council.--8. The fourth council of Constantinople, assembled when Louis
II. was emperor of the West. Their regulations are contained in twenty-seven
canons, the heads of which the reader may find in Dupin. Whatever may be said
in favour of general councils, their utility has been doubted by some of the
wisest men. Dr. Jortin says, "they have been too much extolled by Papists,
and by some Protestants. They were a collection of men who were frail and
fallible. Some of those councils were not assemblies of pious and learned
divines, but cabals, the majority of which were quarrelsome, fanatical,
domineering, dishonest prelates, who wanted to compel men to approve all their
opinions, of which they themselves had no clear conceptions, and to
anathematize and oppress those who would not implicitly submit to their
determinations." Jortin's Works, vol. vii. charge 2; Broughton's Dict.;
Mosheim's Eccl. Hist. Index.
Councils, Provincial or Occasional, have been
numerous. At Aix la Chapelle, A. D. 816, a council was held for regulating the
canons of cathedral churches. The council of Savonnieries, in 859, was the
first which gave the title of Most Christian King to the king of France; but it
did not become the peculiar appellation of that sovereign till 1469. Of Troyes,
in 887, to decide the disputes about the imperial dignity. The second council
of Troyes, 1107, restrains the clergy from marrying. The council of Clermont,
in 1095. The first crusade was determined in this council. The bishops had yet
the precedency of cardinals. In this assembly the name of Pope was for the
first time given to the head of the church, exclusively of the bishops, who
used to assume that title. Here, also, Hugh, archbishop of Lyons, obtained of
the pope a confirmation of the primacy of his see over that of Sens. The
council of Rheims, summoned by Eugenius III. in 1148, called an assembly of
Cisastrian Gaul, in which advowses, or patrons of churches, are prohibited
taking more than ancient fees, upon pain of deprivation and ecclesiastical
burial. Bishops, deacons, sub-deacons, monks, and nuns, are restrained from
marrying. In this council the doctrine of the Trinity was decided: but upon
separation the pope called a congregation, in which the cardinals pretended
they had no right to judge of doctrinal points; that this was the privilege
peculiar to the pope. The council of Sutrium, in 1046, wherein three popes who
had assumed the chair were deposed. The council of Clarendon in England,
against Becket, held in 1164. the council of Lombez, in the country of
Albigeois, in 1200, occasioned by some disturbances on account of the
Albigensis; a crusade was formed on this account, and an army sent to extirpate
them. Innocent III. spirited up this barbarous war. Dominic was the apostle,
the count of Toulouse the victim, and Simon, count of Montfort, the conductor
or chief. The council of Paris in 1210, in which Aristotle's metaphysics were
condemned to the flames, lest the refinements of that philosopher should have a
bad tendency on men's minds, by applying those subjects to religion. The
council of Pisa, begun March the 2d, 1409, in which Benedict XIII. and Gregory
XII. were deposed. Another council, sometimes called general, held at Pisa in
1505. Lewis XII. of France, assembled a national council at Tours (being highly
disgusted with the pope,) 1510, where was present the cardinal De Gurce,
deputed by the emperor; and it was then agreed to convene a general council at
Pisa. Murray's History of Religion.
See TRENT.
Is that quality of the mind that enables men to
encounter difficulties and dangers. Natural courage is that which arises
chiefly from constitution; moral or spiritual is that which is produced from
principle, or a sense of duty. Courage and Fortitude are often used as
synonymous, but they may be distinguished thus: fortitude is firmness of mind
that supports pain; courage is active fortitude, that meets dangers, and
attempts to repel them. See FORTITUDE.
Courage, says Addison, that grows from
constitution, very often forsakes a man when he has occasion for it; and when
it is only a kind of instinct in the soul, it breaks out on all occasions,
without judgment or discretion; but that courage which arises from a sense of
duty, and from a fear of offending Him that made us, always acts in an uniform
manner, and according to the dictates of right reason.
In its primary import, signifies the bringing
into being something which did not before exist. The term is therefore most
generally applied to the original production of the materials whereof the
visible world is composed. It is also used in a secondary or subordinate sense
to denote those subsequent operations of the Deity upon the matter so produced,
by which the whole system of Nature, and all the primitive genera of things,
receive their form, qualities, and laws.
There is no subject concerning which learned men
have differed in their conjectures more than in this of creation. "It is
certain," as a good writer observes, "that none of the ancient
philosophers had the smallest idea of its being possible to produce a substance
out of nothing, or that even the power of the Deity himself could work without
any materials to work upon. Hence some of them, among whom was Aristotle,
asserted that the world was eternal, both as to its matter and form. Others,
though they believed that the gods had given the world its form, yet imagined
the materials whereof it is composed to have been eternal. Indeed, the opinions
of the ancients, who had not the benefit of revelation, were on this head so
confused and contradictory, that nothing of any consequence can be deduced from
them. The free-thinkers of our own and of former ages have denied the
possibility of creation, as being a contradiction to reason; and of consequence
have taken the opportunity from thence to discredit revelation. On the other
hand, many defenders of the sacred writings have asserted that creation out of
nothing, so far from being a contradiction to reason, is not only probable, but
demonstrably certain. Nay, some have gone so far as to say, that from the very
inspection of the visible system of Nature, we are able to infer that it was
once in a state of non-existence." We cannot, however, here enter into the
multiplicity of the arguments on both sides; it is enough for us to know what
God has been pleased to reveal, both concerning himself and the works of his
hands. "Men, and other animals that inhabit the earth and the seas; all
the immense varieties of herbs and plants of which the vegetable kingdom
consists; the globe of the earth, and the expanse of the ocean; these we know
to have been produced by his power. Besides the terrestrial world, which we
inhabit, we see many other material bodies disposed around it in the wide
extent of space. The moon, which is in a particular manner connected with our
earth, and even dependent upon it; the sun, and the other planets, with their
satellites, which like the earth circulate round the sun, and appear to derive
from him light and heat; those bodies which we call fixed stars, and consider
as illuminating and cherishing, with heat each its peculiar system of planets;
and the comets which at certain periods surprise us with their appearance, and
the nature of whose connection with the general system of Nature, or with any
particular system of planets, we cannot pretend to have fully discovered; these
are so many more of the Deity's works, from the contemplation of which we
cannot but conceive the most awful ideas of his creative power.
"Matter, however, whatever the varieties of
form under which it is made to appear, the relative disposition of its parts,
or the motions communicated to it, is but an inferior part of the works of creation.
We believe ourselves to be animated with a much higher principle than brute
matter; in viewing the manners and economy of the lower animals, we can scarce
avoid acknowledging even them to consist of something more than various
modifications of matter and motion. The other planetary bodies, which seem to
be in circumstances nearly analogous to those of our earth, are surely, as well
as it, destined for the habitations of rational intelligent beings. the
existence of intelligences of an higher order than man, though infinitely below
the Deity, appears extremely probable. Of these spiritual beings, called
angels, we have express intimation in Scripture (see the article ANGEL.) But
the limits of the creation we must not pretend to define. How far the regions
of space extend, or how they are filled, we know not. How the planetary worlds,
the sun, and the fixed stars are occupied, we do not pretend to have
ascertained. We are even ignorant how wide a diversity of forms, what an
infinity of living animated beings may inhabit our own globe. So confined is
our knowledge of creation, yet so grand, so awful, that part which our narrow
understandings can comprehend!"
"Concerning the periods of time at which the
Deity executed his several works, it cannot be pretended that mankind have had
opportunities of receiving very particular information. Many have been the
conjectures, and curious the fancies of learned men, respecting it; but, after
all, we must be indebted to the sacred writings for the best information."
Different copies, indeed, give different dates. The Hebrew copy of the Bible,
which we Christians, for good reasons, consider as the most authentic, dates
the creation of the world 3944 years before the Christian era. The Samaritan
Bible, again, fixes the era of the creation 4305 years before the birth of
Christ. And the Greek translation, known by the name of the Septuagint version
of the Bible, gives 5270 as the number of years which intervened between these
two periods. By comparing the various dates in the sacred writings, examining
how these have come to disagree, and to be diversified in different copies;
endeavouring to reconcile the most authentic profane with sacred chronology,
some ingenious men have formed schemes of chronology plausible, indeed, but not
supported by sufficient authorities, which they would gladly persuade us to
receive in preference to any of those above-mentioned. Usher makes out from the
Hebrew Bible 4004 years as the term between the creation and the birth of
Christ. Josephus, according to Dr. Wills, and Mr. Whiston, makes it 4658 years;
and M. Pezron, with the help of the Septuagint, extends it to 5872 years.
Usher's system is the most generally received. But though these different
systems of chronology are so inconsistent, and so slenderly supported, yet the
differences among them are so inconsiderable, in comparison with those which
arise before us when we contemplate the chronology of the Chinese, the
Chaldeans, and the Egyptians, and they agree so well with the general information
of authentic history, and with the appearances of nature and of society, that
they may be considered as nearly fixing the true period of the creation of the
earth." Uncertain, however, as we may be as to the exact time of the
creation, we may profitably apply ourselves to the contemplation of this
immense fabric. Indeed, the beautiful and multiform works around us must strike
the mind of every beholder with wonder and admiration, unless he be enveloped
in ignorance, and chained down to the earth with sensuality. These works every
way proclaim the wisdom, the power, and the goodness of the Creator. Creation
is a book which the nicest philosopher may study with the deepest attention.
Unlike the works of art, the more it is examined, the more it opens to us
sources of admiration of its great Author; the more it calls for our
inspection, and the more it demands our praise. Here every thing is adjusted in
the exactest order; all answering the wisest ends, and acting according to the
appointed laws of Deity. Here the Christian is led into the most delightful
field of contemplation. To him every pebble becomes a preacher, and every atom
a step by which he ascends to his Creator. Placed in this beautiful temple, and
looking around on all its various parts, he cannot help joining with the
Psalmist in saying, "O Lord, how manifold are thy works; in wisdom hast
thou made them all!" See ETERNITY of GOD.
See Ray and Blackmore on the Creation; art.
Creation, Enc. Brit.; Derham's Astro and Physico-theology; Hervey's
Meditations; La Pluche's Nature Displayed; Sturm's Reflections on the Works of
God.
The belief of any proposition without sufficient evidence of its truth.
A form of words in which the articles of faith
are comprehended. See CONFESSION.
The most ancient form of creeds is that which
goes under the name of the Apostles' Creed (see below;) besides this, there are
several other ancient forms and scattered remains of creeds to be met with in
the primitive records of the church; as, 1. The form of apostolical doctrine
collected by Origen.--2. A fragment of a creed preserved by Tertullian.--3. A
remnant of a creed in the works of Cyprian.--4. A creed composed by Gregory
Thaumaturgus for the use of his own church.--5. The creed of Lucian, the
martyr.--6. The creed of the apostolical constitutions. Besides these scattered
remains of the ancient creeds, there are extant some perfect forms, as those of
Jerusalem, Cesarea, Antioch, &c.
Is a formula or summary of the Christian faith, drawn up, according to Ruffinus, by the apostles themselves; who, during their stay at Jerusalem, soon after our Lord's ascension, agreed upon this creed as a rule of faith. Baronius and others conjecture that they did not compose it till the second year of Claudius, a little before their dispersion; but there are many reasons which induce us to question whether the apostles composed any such creed. For, 1. Neither St. Luke, nor any other writer before the fifth century, make any mention of an assembly of the apostles for composing a creed.--2. The fathers of the first three centuries, in disputing against the heretics, endeavour to prove that the doctrine contained in this creed was the same which the apostles taught; but they never pretend that the apostles composed it.--3. If the apostles had made this creed, it would have been the same in all churches and in all ages; and all authors would have cited it after the same manner. But the case is quite otherwise. In the second and third ages of the church there were as many creeds as authors; and the same authors sets down the creed after a different manner in several places of his works; which is an evidence, that there was not, as that time, any creed reputed to be the apostles'. In the fourth century, Ruffinus compares together the three ancient creeds of the churches of Aquileia, Rome, and the East, which differ very considerably. Besides, these creeds differed not only in the terms and expressions, but even in the articles, some of which were omitted in one or other of them; such as those of the descent into hell, the communion of the saints, and the life everlasting. From all which it may be gathered, that though this creed may be said to be that of the apostles, in regard to the doctrines contained therein, yet it cannot be referred to them as the authors of it. Its great antiquity, however, may be inferred from hence, that the whole form, as it now stands in the English liturgy, is to be found in the works of St. Ambrose and Ruffinus; the former of whom flourished in the third, and the latter in the fourth century. The primitive Christians did not publicly recite the creed, except at baptisms, which, unless in cases of necessity, were only at Easter and Whitsuntide. The constant repeating of it was not introduced into the church till the end of the fifth century; about which time Peter Gnaphius, bishop of Antioch, prescribed the recital of it every time divine service was performed. See King's History of the Apostles' Creed; and Barrow's Exposition of it in his Works, vol. ii.
A formulary or confession of faith, long supposed to have been drawn up by Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, in the fourth century, to justify himself against the calumnies of his Arian enemies; but it is now generally allowed not to have been his. Dr. Waterland ascribes it to Hilary, bishop of Aries. This creed obtained in France about A.D. 850, and was received in Spain and Germany about 180 years later. As to our own country, we have clear proofs of its being sung alternately in our churches in the tenth century. It was in common use in some parts of Italy in 960, and was received at Rome about 1014. As to the Greek and Oriental churches, it has been questioned whether they have ever received it, though some writers are of a contrary persuasion. The episcopal churches of America have rejected it. As to the matter of it, it is given as a summary of the true orthodox faith. Unhappily, however, it has proved a fruitful source of unprofitable controversy. See Dr. Waterland's Critical History of it.
A formulary of Christian faith; so called,
because it is a paraphrase of that creed which was made at the first general
council of Nice. This latter was drawn up by the second general council of
Constantinople, A. D. 381: and therefore might be more properly styled the
Constantinopolitan creed. the creed was carried by a majority, and admitted
into the church as a barrier against Arius and his followers.
the three creeds above-mentioned are used in the
public offices of the church of England; and subscription to them is required
of all the established clergy. Subscription to these was also required of the
dissenting teachers by the toleration act; but from which they are now relieved
by 19 Geo. III.
A voluntary breach of any known law. Faults result from human weakness, being transgressions of the rules of duty. Crimes proceed from the wickedness of the heart, being actions against the rules of nature. See PUNISHMENT and SIN.
Those who adopt the sentiments of Dr. Crisp, a divine of the seventeenth century. He was fond, it is said, of expressions which alarm, and paradoxes which astonish; and perplexed himself much about the divine purposes. He did not distinguish as he ought, between God's secret will in his decrees, and his revealed will in his covenant and promises. The root of his error seems to be this:--he viewed the union between Christ and the believer to be of such a kind as actually to make a Saviour of the sinner, and a sinner of the Saviour. He speaks as if God considered the sinner as doing and suffering what Christ did and suffered; and Christ as having committed their sins, and as being actually guilty of them. See book under articles ANTINOMIANS and NEONOMIANS. Crisp's Sermons, edited by Dr. Gill; Bogue and Bennet's History of Dissenters, vol. i. p. 400.
May be applied to any war undertaken on pretence
of defending the cause of religion, but has been chiefly used for the
expeditions of the Christians against the infidels for the conquest of
Palestine.
These expeditions commenced A. D. 1096. The
foundation of them was a superstitious veneration for those places where our
Saviour performed his miracles, and accomplished the work of man's redemption.
Jerusalem had been taken and Palestine conquered by Omar. This proved a
considerable interruption to the pilgrims, who flocked from all quarters to
perform their devotions at the holy sepulchre. They had, however, still been
allowed this liberty, on paying a small tribute to the Saracen caliphs, who
were not much inclined to molest them. But, in 1064, this city changed its
masters. The Turks took it from the Saracens; and being much more fierce and
barbarous, the pilgrims now found they could no longer perform their devotions
with the same safety. An opinion was about this time also prevalent in Europe,
which made these pilgrimages much more frequent than formerly: it was imagined,
that the 1000 years mentioned in Rev. xx. were fulfilled; that Christ was soon
to make his appearance in Palestine to judge the world; and consequently that
journeys to that country were in the highest degree meritorious, and even
absolutely necessary. The multitudes of pilgrims who now flocked to Palestine
meeting with a very rough reception from the Turks, filled all Europe with
complaints against those infidels, who profaned the holy city, and derided the
sacred mysteries of Christianity even in the place where they were fulfilled.
Pope Gregory VII. had formed a design of uniting all the princes of Christendom
against the Mahometaus; but his exorbitant encroachments upon the civil power
of princes had created him so many enemies, and rendered his schemes so
suspicious, that he was not able to make great progress in his undertaking. the
work was reserved for a meaner instrument. Peter, commonly called the Hermit, a
native of Amiens in Picardy, had made the pilgrimage to Jerusalem; and being
deeply affected with the dangers to which that act of piety now exposed the
pilgrims, as well as with the oppression under which the eastern Christians now
laboured, formed the bold, and, in all appearance, impracticable design of
leading into Asia, from the farthest extremities of the West, armies sufficient
to subdue those potent and warlike nations that now held the holy land in
slavery. He proposed his scheme to pope Martin II. who, prudently resolving not
to interpose his authority till he saw a probability of success, summoned at
Placentia, a council of 4000 ecclesiastics and 30,000 seculars. As no hall
could be found large enough to contain such a multitude, the assembly was held
in a plain. Here the pope himself, as well at Peter, harangued the people,
representing the dismal situation of their brethren in the East, and the
indignity offered to the Christian name in allowing the holy city to remain in
the hands of the infidels. These speeches were so agreeable to those who heard
them, that the whole multitude suddenly and violently declared for the war, and
solemnly devoted themselves to perform this service, which they believed to be
meritorious in the sight of God. But though Italy seemed to have embraced the
design with ardour, Martin thought it necessary, in order to obtain perfect
success, to engage the greater and more warlike nations in the same enterprise.
Having, therefore exhorted Peter to visit the chief cities and sovereigns of
Christendom, he summoned another council at Clermont in Auvergne. The fame of
this great and pious design being now universally diffused, procured the
attendance of the greatest prelates, nobles, and princes; and when the pope and
the hermit renewed their pathetic exhortations, the whole assembly, as if
impelled by immediate inspiration, exclaimed with one voice, "It is the
will of God!" These words were deemed so much the effect of a divine
impulse, that they were employed as the signal of rendezvous and battle in all
future exploits of these adventurers. Men of all ranks now flew to arms with
the utmost ardour, and a cross was affixed to their right shoulder by all who
enlisted in this holy enterprise. At this time Europe was sunk in the most
profound ignorance and superstition. The ecclesiastics had gained the greatest
ascendant over the human mind; and the people who committed the most horrid
crimes and disorders, knew of no other expiation than the observances imposed
on them by their spiritual pastors. But amidst the abject superstition which
now prevailed, that military spirit had also universally diffused itself; and,
though not supported by art or discipline, was become the general passion of
the nations governed by the feudal law. all the great lords possessed the right
of peace and war. they were engaged in continual hostilities with one another:
the open country was become a scene of outrage and disorder: the cities, still
mean and poor, were neither guarded by walls nor protected by privileges. Every
man was obliged to depend for safety on his own force, or his private
alliances; and valour was the only excellence which was held in esteem, or gave
one man the are-eminence above another. When all the particular superstitions,
therefore, were here united in one great object, the ardour for private
hostilities took the same direction; "and all Europe," as the princess
Anna Comnena expresses it, "torn from its foundations, seemed ready to
precipitate itself in one united body upon Asia."
All ranks of men now deeming the croisades the
only road to heaven, were impatient to open the way with their swords to the
holy city. Nobles, artizans, peasants, even priests, enrolled their names; and
to decline this service was branded with the reproach of impiety or cowardice.
The nobles were moved, by the romantic spirit of the age, to hope for opulent
establishments in the East, the chief seat of arts and commerce at that time.
In pursuit of these chimerical projects, they sold at low prices their ancient
castles and inheritances, which had now lost all value in their eyes. The
infirm and aged contributed to the expedition by presents and money, and many
of them attended it in person; being determined, if possible to breathe their
last in sight of that city where their Saviour died for them. Even women,
concealing their sex under the disguise of armour, attended the camp; and often
forgot their duty still more, by prostituting themselves to the army. The
greatest criminals were forward in a service which they considered as an
expiation for all crimes; and the most enormous disorders were, during the
course of these expeditions, committed by men inured to wickedness, encouraged
by example, and impelled by necessity. The adventurers were at last so
numerous, that their sagracious leaders became apprehensive lest the greatness
of the armament would be the cause of its own disappointment. For this reason
they permitted an undisciplined multitude, computed at 300,000 men, to go
before them under the command of Peter the hermit, and Gautier or Walter,
surnamed the moneyless, from his being a soldier of fortune. These took the
road towards Constantinople through Hungary and Bulgaria; and trusting that
heaven, by supernatural assistance, would supply all their necessities, they
made no provision for subsistence in their march. they soon found themselves
obliged to obtain by plunder what they vainly expected from miracles: and the
enraged inhabitants of the countries through which they passed attacked the
disorderly multitude, and slaughtered them without resistance. The more
disciplined armies followed after; and, passing the straits of Constantinople,
were mustered in the plains of Asia, and amounted in the whole to 700,000 men.
The princes engaged in this first crusade were, Hugo, count of Vermandois,
brother to Philip I. king of France; Robert, duke of Normandy; Robert, earl of
Flanders; Raimond, earl of Toulouse and St. Giles; the celebrated Godfrey of
Bouillon, duke of Lorrain, with his brothers Baldwin and Eustace; Stephen, earl
of Chartres and Blois; Hugo, count of St. Paul; with many other lords. The
general rendezvous was at Constantinople. In this expedition Godfrey besieged
and took the city of Nice. Jerusalem was taken by the confederated army, and
Godfrey chosen king. The Christians gained the famous battle of Ascalon against
the Sultan of Egypt, which put an end to the first crusade, but not to the
spirit of crusading. The rage continued for near two centuries. The second
crusade, in 1144, was headed by the emperor Conrad IIi. and Louis VII. king of
France. The emperor's army was either destroyed by the enemy, or perished
through the treachery of Manuel, the Greek emperor; and the second army,
through the unfaithfulness of the Christians of Syria, was forced to break up
the siege of Damascus. The third crusade, in 1188, immediately followed the
taking of Jerusalem by Saladin, the Sultan of Egypt. The princes engaged in
this expedition were the emperor Frederic Barbarossa; Frederic, duke of Suabia,
his second son; Leopold, duke of Austria; Berthold, duke of Moravia; Herman,
marquis of Baden; the counts of Nassau, Thuringia, Missen, and Holland; and
above sixty other princes of the empire; with the bishops of Besancon, Cambray,
Munster, Osnaburg, Missen, Passau, Visburg, and several others. In this
expedition the emperor Frederic defeated the Sultan of Iconium: his son
Frederic, joined by Guy Lasignon, king of Jerusalem, in vain endeavoured to
take Acre or Ptolemais. During these transactions, Philip Augustus, king of
France, and Richard I. king of England, joined the croisade: by which means the
Christian army consisted of 300,000 fighting men; but great disputes happening
between the kings of France and England, the former quitted the holy land, and
Richard concluded a peace with Saladin. The fourth croisade was undertaken in
1195, by the emperor Henry VI. after Saladin's death. In this expedition the
Christians gained several battles against the infidels, took a great many
towns, and were in the way of success, when the death of the emperor obliged
them to quit the holy land, and return into Germany. the fifth croisade was
published by pope Innocent III. in 1198. Those engaged in it made fruitless
efforts for the recovery of the holy land: for, though John de Neule, who
commanded the fleet equipped in Flanders, arrived at Ptolemais a little after
Simon of Montfort, Renard of Dampierre, and others, yet the plague destroying
many of them, and the rest either returning, or engaging in the petty quarrels
of the Christian princes, there was nothing done; so that the sultan of Aleppo
easily defeated their troops in 1204. The sixth croisade began in 1228; in
which the Christians took the town of Damietta, but were forced to surrender it
again. In 1229, the emperor Frederic made peace with the sultan for ten years.
about 1240, Richard, earl of Cornwall, brother to Henry III. king of England,
arrived at Palestine, at the head of the English croisade; but finding it most
advantageous to conclude a peace, he reembarked, and steered towards Italy. In
1244, the Karasmians being driven out of Turkey by the Tartars, broke into
Palestine, and gave the Christians a general defeat near Gaza. the seventh
croisade was headed, in 1249, by St. Lewis, who took the town of Damietta; but
a sickness happening in the Christian army, the king endeavoured a retreat; in
which, being pursued by the infidels, most of his army were miserably
butchered, and himself and the nobility taken prisoners. A truce was agreed
upon for ten years, and the king and lords set at liberty. The eighth croisade,
in 1279, was headed by the same prince, who made himself master of the port and
castle of Carthage in Africa; but dying a short time after, he left his army in
a very ill condition. Soon after, the king of Sicily coming up with a good
fleet, and joining Philip the bold, son and successor of Lewis, the king of
Tunis, after several engagements with the Christians, in which he was always
worsted, desired peace, which was granted upon condition advantageous to the
Christians; after which both princes embarked to their own kingdoms. Prince
Edward, of England, who arrived at Tunis at the time of this treaty, sailed
towards Prolemais, where he landed a small body of 300 English and French, and
hindered Bendochar from laying siege to Ptolemais: but being obliged to return
to take possession of the crown of England, this croisade ended without contributing
any thing to the recovery of the holy land. In 1291, the town of Acre or
Ptolemais was taken and plundered by the sultan of Egypt, and the Christians
quite driven out of Syria. There has been no croisade since that period, though
several popes have attempted to stir up the Christians to such an undertaking;
particularly Nicholas IV. in 1292, and Clement V. in 1311.
Though these croisades were effects of the most
absurd superstition, they tended greatly to promote the good of Europe.
Multitudes, indeed, were destroyed. M. Voltaire computes the people who
perished in the different expeditions at upwards of two millions. Many there
were, however, who returned; and these having conversed so long with people who
lived in a much more magnificent way than themselves, began to entertain some
taste for a refined and polished way of life. thus the barbarism in which
Europe had been so long immersed began to wear off soon after. The princes also
who remained at home, found means to avail themselves of the frenzy of the
people. By the absence of such numbers of restless and martial adventurers,
peace was established in their dominions. They also took the opportunity of
annexing to their crowns many considerable fiefs, either by purchase, or the
extinction of the heirs; and thus the mischiefs which must always attend feudal
governments were considerably lessened. With regard to the bad success of the
croisaders, it was scarcely possible that any other thing could happen to them.
The emperors of Constantinople, instead of assisting, did all in their power to
disconcert their schemes: they were jealous, and not without reason, of such an
inundation of barbarians. Yet, had they considered their true interest, they
would rather have assisted them, or at least stood neuter, than enter into
alliances with the Turks. They followed the latter method, however, and were
often of very great disservice to the western adventurers, which at last
occasioned the loss of their city. But the worst enemies the croisaders had
were their own internal feuds and dissentions. They neither could agree while
marching together in armies with a view to conquest, nor could they unite their
conquests under one government after they had made them. They set up three
small states, one at Jerusalem, another at Antioch, and another at Edessa.
These states, instead of assisting, made war upon each other, and on the Greek
emperors; and thus became an easy prey to the common enemy. The horrid
cruelties they committed, too, must have inspired the Turks with the most
invincible hatred against them, and made them resist with the greatest
obstinacy. They were such as could have been committed only by barbarians
inflamed with the most bigoted enthusiasm. When Jerusalem was taken, not only
the numerous garrisons were put to the sword, but the inhabitants were
massacred without mercy and without distinction. No age or sex was spared, not
even sucking children. according to Voltaire, some Christians, who had been
suffered by the Turks to live in that city, led the conquerors into the most
private caves, where women had concealed themselves with their children and not
one of them was suffered to escape. What eminently shows the enthusiasm by
which these conquerors were animated, is, their behaviour after this terrible
slaughter. They marched over heaps of dead bodies towards the holy sepulchre;
and while their hands were polluted with the blood of so many innocent persons,
sung anthems to the common Saviour of Mankind! Nay, so far did their religious
enthusiasm overcome their fury, that these ferocious conquerors now burst into
tears. If the absurdity and wickedness of their conduct can be exceeded by any
thing, it must be by what follows. In 1204, the frenzy of croisading seized the
children, who are ever ready to imitate what they see their parents engaged in.
Their childish folly was encouraged by the monks and schoolmasters; and
thousands of those innocents were conducted from the houses of their parents on
the superstitious interpretation of these words: "Out of the mouths of
babes and sucklings hast thou perfected praise." Their base conductors
sold a part of them to the Turks, and the rest perished miserably. Hume's Hist.
of England, vol. i. p. 292. &c. and vol. ii. p. 280; Enc. Brit. and
Mosheim's Ecc Hist.
A religious order, founded in honour of the invention or discovery of the cross by the empress Helena. They were, till of late, dispersed in several parts of Europe, particularly in the Low Countries, France, and Bohemia; those of Italy were suppressed even before the late revolutions. These religious follow the rule of St. Augustine. They had in England the name of Crouched Friars.
Or CROZIER, a shepherd's crook; a symbol of pastoral authority, consisting of a gold or silver staff, crooked at the top, carried occasionally before bishops and abbots, and held in the hand when they give the solemn benedictions.
In Scripture language, means the sufferings of
Christ, Gal. vi. 14. The sufferings, trials, or persecutions of the people are
also called a cross, Matt. xvi. 24. Cross signifies also a gibbet, made with
two pieces of wood, placed crosswise, whether they cross with right angles at
the top like a T, or in the middle of their length like an X. The cross to
which our Saviour was fastened, and on which he died, was of the former kind;
being thus represented by old monuments, coins, and crosses. the death of the
cross was the most dreadful of all others, both for the shame and pain of it;
and so scandalous, that it was inflicted as the last mark of detestation upon
the vilest of people. It was the punishment of robbers and murderers, provided
that they were slaves too; but otherwise, if they were free, and had the
privilege of the city of Rome, this was then thought a prostitution of that
honour, and too infamous a punishment for such a one, let his crimes be what
they would. The form of a cross being such as has been already described, the
body of the criminal was fastened to the upright piece by nailing the feet to
it, and on the other transverse piece generally by nailing the hands on each
side. Now, because these parts of the body, being the instruments of action and
motion, are provided by Nature with a much greater quantity of nerves than
others have occasion for; and because all sensation is performed by the spirit
contained in the nerves; it will follow, as Stanhope observes, that whereever
they abound, the sense of pain must needs in proportion be more quick and
tender. The Jews confess, indeed, that they crucified people in their nation,
but deny that they inflicted this punishment upon any one alive. They first put
them to death, and then fastened them to the cross, either by the hands or
neck. But there are indisputable proofs of their crucifying men frequently
alive. The worshippers of Baal-peor, and the king of Ai were hung up alive; as
were also the descendants of Saul, who were put into the hands of the
Gibeonites, 2 Sam. xxi. 9.
Before crucifixion, the criminal was generally
scourged with cords; sometimes little bones, or pieces of bones, were tied to
these scourges, so that the condemned person might suffer more severely. It was
also a custom, that he who was to be crucified should bear his own cross to the
place of execution. After this manner, we find Christ was compelled to bear his
cross; and as he sunk under the burden, Simon the Cyrenian was constrained to
bear it after him and with him. But whereas it is generally supposed that our
Lord bore the whole cross, i.e. the long and transverse part both, this seems
to be a thing impossible; and therefore Lipsius (in his treatise De Supplicio
Crucis) has set the matter in a true light, when he tells us that Jesus only
carried the transverse beam; because the long beam, or the body of the cross,
was either fixed in the ground before, or made ready to be set up as soon as
the prisoner came; and from hence he observes, that painters are very much
mistaken in the description of our Saviour carrying the whole cross. There were
several ways of crucifying; sometimes the criminal was fastened with cords to a
tree, sometimes he was crucified with his head downwards. This way, it is said,
Peter chose, out of respect to his master, Jesus Christ, not thinking himself
worthy to be crucified like him; though the common way of crucifying was by
fastening the criminal with nails, one through each hand, and one through both
feet, or one through each of them; for this was not always performed in the
same manner; the ancients sometimes represent Jesus Christ crucified with four
nails, and sometimes with three. The criminal was fixed to the cross quite
naked; and, in all probability, the Saviour of sinners was not used with any
greater tenderness than others upon whom this punishment was inflicted. The
text of the gospel shows clearly that Jesus Christ was fastened to the cross
with nails, and the Psalmist (Ps. xxii. 16,) had foretold long before, that they
should pierce his hands and his feet; but there are great disputes concerning
the number of these nails. The Greeks represent our Saviour as fastened to the
cross with four nails; in which particular Gregory of Tours agrees with them,
one on each hand and foot. But several are of opinion that our Saviour's hands
and feet were pierced with three nails only, viz. one on each hand, and one
through both his feet: and the custom of the Latins is rather for this last
opinion; for the generality of the old crucifixes made in the Latin church have
only three nails. Nonnus thinks that our Saviour's arms were besides bound fast
to the cross with chains; and St. Hilary speaks of the cords wherewith he was
tied to it. Sometimes they who were fastened upon the cross lived a good while
in that condition. St. Andrew is believed to have continued three days alive
upon it. Eusebius speaks of certain martyrs in Egypt who were kept upon the
cross till they were starved to death. Pilate was amazed at Jesus Christ's
dying so soon, because naturally he must have lived longer, if it had not been
in his power to have laid down his life, and to take it up again. The thighs of
the two thieves, who were crucified with our Saviour, were broken, in order to
hasten their death, that their bodies might not remain upon the cross on the
Sabbath day, John xix. 31,33; and to comply with the law of Moses, which
forbids the bodies to be left there after sun-set. But, among other nations,
they were suffered to remain upon the cross a long time. Sometimes they were
devoured alive by birds and beasts of prey. Guards were appointed to observe
that none of their friends or relations should take them down and bury them.
The Roman soldiers, who had crucified Jesus Christ and the two thieves,
continued near the crosses till the bodies were taken down and buried.
Invention of the Cross, an ancient feast
solemnized on the 3d of May, in memory of St. Helena's (the mother of
Constantine) finding the true cross of Christ deep in the ground on Mount Calvary,
where she erected a church for the preservation of part of it; the rest being
brought to Rome, and deposited in the church of the Holy Cross of Jerusalem.
Exaltation of the Cross, an ancient feast held on
the 14th of September, in memory of this, that Heraclitus restored to Mount
Calvary the true cross, in 642, which had been carried off fourteen years
before by Cosrocs, king of Persia, upon his taking Jerusalem from the emperor
Phocas.
The Adoration of the Cross seems to have been
practised in the ancient church, in as much as the heathens, particularly
Julian, reproached the primitive Christians with it; and we do not find that
their apologists disclaimed the charge. Mornay, indeed, asserted that this had
been done by St. Cyril, but could not support his allegation at the conference
of Fontainbleau. St. Helena is said to have reduced the adoration of the cross
to its just principle, since she adored Christ in the wood, not the wood
itself. With such modifications some Protestants have been induced to admit the
adoration of the cross. John Huss allowed of the phrase, provided it were
expressly added, that the adoration was relative to the person of Christ. But,
however Roman catholics may seem to triumph by virtue of such distinction and
mitigations, it is well known they have no great place in their own practice.
Imbert, the prior of Gascony, was severely prosecuted in 1683, for telling the
people, that, in the ceremony of adoring the cross, practised in that church on
Good Friday, they were not to adore the wood, but Christ, who was crucified on
it. the curate of the parish told them the contrary. It was the wood; the wood
they were to adore! Imbert replied, it was Christ, not the wood; for which he
was cited before the archbishop of Bourdeaux, suspended from his functions, and
even threatened with chains and perpetual imprisonment. It little availed him
to cite the bishop of Meaux's distinction; it was answered that the church
allowed it not.
In the Romish church, the chaplain of an archbishop, who bears a cross before him on solemn occasions. Cross-bearers also denote certain officers in the Inquisition, who make a vow before the Inquisitors, or their vicars, to defend the catholic faith, though with the loss of fortune and life. Their business is also to provide the Inquisitors with necessaries.
A cross, upon which the body of Christ is fastened in effigy, used by the Roman catholics, to excite in their minds a strong idea of our Saviour's passion.
See CROSS.
See CROISADE.
The lowest degree in the church of England; he who represents the incumbent of a church, parson, or vicar, and officiates in his stead: he is to be licensed and admitted by the bishop of the diocese, or by an ordinary having episcopal jurisdiction; and when a curate hath the approbation of the bishop, he usually appoints the salary too; and, in such case, if he be not paid, the curate hath a proper remedy in the ecclesiastical court, by a sequestration of the profits of the benefice: but is the curate be not licensed by the bishop, he is put to his remedy at common law, where he must prove the agreement, &c. A curate, having no fixed estate in his curacy, not being instituted and inducted, may be removed at pleasure by the bishop, or incumbent. But there are perpetual curates as well as temporary, who are appointed where tithes are impropriate, and no vicarage endowed: these are not removeable, and the improprietors are obliged to find them; some whereof have certain portions of the tithes settled on them. Curates must subscribe the declaration according to the act of uniformity, or are liable to imprisonment. Though the condition of curates be somewhat ameliorated by a late act, it must be confessed that they are still, in many respects, exposed to hardships: their salaries are not equal to many dissenting ministers, who have nothing to depend on but the liberality of their people. Can there be a greater reproach to the dignified ecclesiastics of this country, than the comparatively miserable pittance allowed the curates, who do all the labour? Surely they must be a set of useless beings, to reap so little wages; or else they are unjustly treated!!!
A propensity or disposition of the soul which inclines it to enquire after new objects, and to delight in viewing them. Curiosity is proper, when it springs from a desire to know our duty, to mature our judgments, to enlarge our minds, and to regulate our conduct; but improper when it wishes to know more of God, of the decrees; the origin or evil; the state of men, or the nature of things, than it is designed for us to know. The evil of this is evident. It reproaches God's goodness; it is a violation of Scripture, Deut. xxii. 29; it robs us of our time; it often makes us unhappy, lessens our usefulness, and produces mischief. To cure this disposition let us consider the divine command, Phil. iv. 6. that every thing essential is revealed; that God cannot err; that we shall be satisfied in a future state, Is. xiii. 7. Curiosity concerning the affairs of others is exceedingly reprehensible. "It interrupts," says an elegant writer, "the order, and breaks the peace of society. Persons of this disposition are dangerous troublers of the world. Crossing the lines in which others move, they create confusion, and awaken resentment. Hence, many a friendship has been broken; the peace of many a family has been overthrown; and much bitter and lasting discord has been propagated through society. Such a disposition is entirely the reverse of that amiable spirit of charity our Lord inculcates. Charity, like the sun, brightens every object on which it shines: a censorious disposition casts every character into the darkest shade it will bear. It is to be further observed, that all impertinent curiosity about the affairs of others tends greatly to obstruct personal reformation. They who are so officiously occupied about their neighbours, have little leisure, and less inclination, to observe their own defects, or to mind their own duty. From their inquisitive researches, they find, or imagine they find, in the behaviour of others, an apology for their own failings; and the favourite result of their enquiries generally is, to rest satisfied with themselves. We should consider, also, that every excursion of vain curiosity about others is a subtraction from that time and thought which are due to ourselves, and to God. In the great circle of human affairs, there is room for every one to be busy, and well employed in his own province, without encroaching upon that of others. It is the province of superiors to direct; of inferiors to obey; of the learned to be instructive; of the ignorant to be docile; of the old to be communicative; of the young to be adviseable and diligent. In all the various relations which subsist among us in life, as husband and wife, master and servants, parents and children, relations and friends, rulers and subjects, innumerable duties stand ready to be performed; innumerable calls to activity present themselves on every hand, sufficient to fill up with advantage and honour the whole time of man." Blair's Serm. vol. iv. ser. 8; Clark's Serm. ser. on Deut. xxix. 29; Seed's Posth. Serm. ser. 7.
The action of wishing any tremendous evil to another. In Scripture language it signifies the just and lawful sentence of God's law, condemning sinners to suffer the full punishment of their sin, Gal. iii. 10.
And Swearing. See SWEARING.
A very comprehensive term, denoting the manners,
ceremonies, and fashions of a people, which having turned into habit, and
passed into use, obtain the force of laws. Custom and habit are often
confounded. By custom, we mean a frequent reiteration of the same act; and by
habit, the effect that custom has on the mind or the body. See HABIT.
"Viewing man," says Lord Kames,
"as a sensitive being, and perceiving the influence of novelty upon him,
would one suspect that custom has an equal influence? and yet our nature is
equally susceptible of both; not only in different objects, but frequently in
the same. When an object is new, it is enchanting; familiarity renders it
indifferent; and custom, after a longer familiarity, makes it again desirable.
Human nature, diversified with many and various springs of action, is
wonderful, and indulging the expression, intricately constructed. Custom hath
such influence upon many of our feelings, by warping and varying them, that we
must attend to its operations, if we would be acquainted with human nature. A
walk upon the quarter-deck, though intolerably confined, becomes, however, so
agreeable by custom, that a sailor, in his walk on shore, confines himself
commonly within the same bounds. I knew a man who had relinquished the sea for
a country life: in the corner of his garden he reared an artificial mount, with
a level summit, resembling, most accurately, a quarter-deck, not only in shape,
but in size; and here was his choice walk." Such we find is often the
power of custom.
A sect of ancient philosophers, who valued themselves upon their contempt of riches and state, arts and sciences, and every thing, in short, except virtue and morality. They owe their origin and institution to Antisthenes of Athens, a disciple of Socrates; who being asked of what use his philosophy had been to him, replied, "it enables me to live with myself." Diogenes was the most famous of his disciples, in whose life the system of this philosophy appears in its greatest perfection. He led a most whimsical life, despising every kind of convenience; a tub serving him for a lodging, which he rolled before him wherever he went: yet he was not the more humble on account of his ragged cloak, bag and tub. One day entering Plato's house, at a time when there was a splendid entertainment for several persons of distinction, he jumped, in all his dirt, upon a very rich couch, saying, "I trample on the pride of Plato!" "yes," replied Plato, "but with still greater pride, Diogenes!" He had the utmost contempt for all the human race; for he walked the street of Athens at noon day, with a lighted lantern in his hand, telling the people "he was in search of an honest man." But with all his maxims of morality, he held some very pernicious opinions.