A solemn affirmation, wherein we appeal to God
as a witness of the truth of what we say, and with an imprecation of his
vengeance, or a renunciation of his favour, if what we affirm be false, or what
we promise be not performed.
"The forms of oaths," says Dr. Paley,
"like other religious ceremonies, have in all ages been various;
consisting, however, for the most part, of some bodily action, and of a
prescribed form of words. Amongst the Jews, the juror held up his right hand
towards heaven, Psal. cxliv. 8. Rev. x. 5. (The same form is retained in
Scotland still.) Amongst the Jews, also, an oath of fidelity was taken by the
servant's putting his hand under the thigh of his lord, Gen. xxiv. 2. Amongst
the Greeks and Romans, the form varied with the subject and occasion of the
oath: in private contracts, the parties took hold of each other's hand, whilst
they swore to the performance; or they touched the altar of the god by whose
divinity they swore. Upon more solemn occasions it was the custom to slay a victim,
and the beast being struck down, with certain ceremonies and invocations, gave
birth to the expressions, ferire pactum; and to our English phrase translated
from these, of 'striking a bargain.' The forms of oaths in Christian countries
are also very different; but in no country in the world worse contrived, either
to convey the meaning, or impress the obligation of an oath or impress the
obligation of an oath than in our own. The juror with us after repeating the
promise or affirmation which the oath is intended to confirm, adds, 'So help me
God;' or more frequently the substance of the oath is repeated to the juror by
the magistrate, who adds in the conclusion, 'So help you God.' The energy of
the sentence resides in the particle so; so, that is, hac lege, upon condition
of my speaking the truth, or performing this promise, and not otherwise, may
God help me. The juror, whilst he hears or repeats the words of the oath, holds
his right hand upon the Bible, or other book containing the four Gospels, and
at the conclusion kisses the book. This obscure and eliptical form, together
with the levity and frequency with which it is administered, has brought about
a general inadvertency to the obligation of oaths, which both in a religious
and political view is much to be lamented: and it merits public
consideration," continues, Mr. Paley, "whether the requiring of oaths
on so many frivolous occasions, especially in the customs, and in the
qualification for petty offices, has any other effect than to make them cheap
in the minds of the people. A pound of tea cannot travel regularly from the
ship to the consumer without costing half a dozen oaths at least; and the same
security for the due discharge of their office, namely, that of an oath is
required from a churchwarden and an archbishop, from a petty constable, and the
chief justice of England. Oaths, however, are lawful; and, whatever be the
form, the signification, is the same." It is evident that so far as
atheism prevails, oaths can be of no use. "Remove God once out of heaven,
and there will never be any gods upon earth. If man's nature had not something
of subjection in it to a Supreme Being, and inherent principles, obliging him
how to behave himself toward God and toward the rest of the world, government could
never have been introduced, nor thought of. Nor can there be the least mutual
security between governors and governed, where no God is admitted. For it is
acknowledging of God in his supreme judgment over the world, that is the ground
of an oath, and upon which the validity of all human engagements depend."
Historians have justly remarked, that when the reverence for an oath began to
be diminished among the Romans, and the loose Epicurian system, which discarded
the belief of Providence, was introduced, the Roman honour and prosperity from
that period began to decline. "The Quakers refuse to swear upon any
occasion, founding their scruples concerning the lawfulness of oaths, upon our
Saviour's prohibition, 'Swear not at all.' Matt. v. 34. But it seems our Lord
there referred to the vicious, wanton, and unauthorized swearing in common
discourse, and not to judicial oaths; for he himself answered when interrogated
upon oath, Matt. xxvi. 63, 64. Mark xiv. 61. The apostle Paul also makes use of
expressions which contain the nature of oaths, Rom. i. 9. 1 Cor. xv. 31. 2 Cor.
i. 18. Gal. i. 20. Heb. vi. 13, 17. Oaths are nugatory, that is, carry with
them no proper force or obligation, unless we believe that God will punish
false swearing with more severity than a simple lie or breach of promise; for
which belief there are the following reasons: 1. Perjury is a sin of greater
deliberation.--2. It violates a superior confidence.--3. God directed the
Israelites to swear by his name, Deut. vi. 13. x. 20. and was pleased to
confirm his covenant with that people by an oath; neither of which it is
probable he would have done, had he not intended to represent oaths as having
some meaning and effect beyond the obligation of a bare promise.
"Promissory oaths are not binding where the
promise itself would not be so. See PROMISES. As oaths are designed for the
security of the imposer, it is manifest that they must be interpreted and
performed in the sense in which the imposer intends them." Oaths, also,
must never be taken but in matters of importance, nor irreverently, and without
godly fear. Paley's Mor. Phil. ch. 16. vol. i. Grot. de Jure, l. 11. c.
13.& 21; Barrow's Works, vol. i. ser. 15; Burnet's Exposition of the 39th
Article of the Church of England; Herport's Essay on truths of importance, and
Doctrine of Oaths; Doddridge's Lectures, lect. 189; Tillotson's 22d Sermon;
Wolsely's Unreasonableness of Atheism, p. 152.
Oath of allegiance is as follows; "I, A. B.
do sincerely promise and swear, that I will be faithful, and bear true
allegiance to his Majesty, King George. So help me God." This is taken by
Protestant dissenting ministers, when licensed by the civil magistrate; as is
also the following:
Oath of supremacy; "I, A. B. do swear, that
I do from my heart abhor, detest, and abjure, as impious and heretical, that
damnable doctrine and position, that princes excommunicated or deprived by the
Pope, or any authority of the see of Rome, may be deposed or murdered by their
subjects, or any other whatsoever. And I do declare, that no foreign prince,
person, prelate, state, or potentate, hath, or ought to have, any jurisdiction,
power, pre-eminence, or authority, ecclesiastical or spiritual, within this
realm. So help me God."
The performance of the commands of a superior. Obedience to God, may be considered, 1. As virtual, which consists in a belief of the Gospel, of the holiness and equity of its precepts, of the truth of its promises, and a true repentance of all our sins.--2. Actual obedience, which is the practice and exercise of the several graces and duties of Christianity.--3. Perfect obedience, which is the exact conformity of our hearts and lives to the law of God, without the least imperfection. This last is only peculiar to a glorified state. The obligation we are under to obedience arises, 1. From the relation we stand in to God as creatures, Psalm xcv. 6.--2. From the law he hath revealed to us in his word, Psalm cxix. 3. 2 Peter, i. 5,7.--3. From the blessings of his providence we are constantly receiving, Acts xiv. 17. Psalm cxlv.--4. From the love and goodness of god in the grand work of redemption, 1 Cor. vi. 20. As to the nature of this obedience, it must be, 1. Active, not only avoiding what is prohibited, but performing what is commanded, Col. iii. 8, 10.--2. Personal; for though Christ has obeyed the law for us as a covenant of works, yet he hath not abrogated it as a rule of life, Rom. vii. 22. Rom. iii. 31.--3. Sincere, Psalm li. 6. 1 Tim. i. 5.--4. Affectionate, springing from love, and not from terror, 1 John v. 19. 1 John ii. 5. 2 Cor. v. 14.--5. Diligent, not slothfully, Gal. i. 16. Psalm xviii. 44. Rom. xii. 11.--6. Conspicuous and open, Phil. ii. 15. Matt. v. 16.--7. Universal; not one duty, but all must be performed, 2 Pet. i. 5, 10.--8. Perpetual, at all times, places, and occasions, Rom. ii. 7. Gal. vi. 9. The advantages of obedience are these, 1. It adorns the Gospel, Tit. ii. 10.--2. It is evidential of grace, 2 Cor. v. 17.--3. It rejoices the hearts of the ministers and people of God, 3 John 2. 2 Thess. i. 19,20.--4. It silences gainsayers, 2 Pet. i. 11, 12.--5. Encourages the saints, while it reproves the lukewarm, Matt. v. 16.--6. Affords peace to the subject of it, Psalm xxv. 12,13. Acts xxiv. 16.--7. It powerfully recommends religion, as that which is both delightful and practicable, Col. i. 10.--8. It is the forerunner and evidence of eternal glory, Rom. vi. 22. Rev. xxii. 14. See HOLINESS, SANCTIFICATION; Charnock's works, vol. xi. p. 1212; Tillotson's Sermons, ser. 122, 123; Saurin's Sermons, vol. i. ser. 4; Ridgly's Body of Divinity, qu. 92.
Is generally divided into active and passive. His active obedience implies what he did; his passive what he suffered. Some divines distinguish these. They refer our pardon to his passive, and our title to glory to his active obedience: though, Dr. Owen observes, that it cannot be clearly evinced that there is any such thing in propriety of speech as passive obedience: obeying is doing, to which passion or suffering doth not belong. Of the active obedience of Christ the Scriptures assure us that he took upon him the form of a servant, and really became one, Is. xlix. 3. Phil. ii. 5. Heb. viii. He was subject to the law of God. "He was made under the law;" the judicial or civil law of the Jews: the ceremonial law, and the moral law, Matt. xvii. 24, 27. Luke ii. 22. Psalm xl. 7,8. He was obedient to the law of nature; he was in a state of subjection to his parents; and he fulfilled the commands of his heavenly Father as it respected the first and second table. His obedience, 1. Was voluntary, Psalm xl. 6.--2. Complete, 1 Peter ii. 22.--3. Wrought out in the room and stead of his people, Rom. x. 4. Rom. v. 19.--4. Well pleasing and acceptable in the sight of God. See ATONEMENT; Death and Sufferings of Christ.
Secular persons who devoted themselves and their estates to some monastery, into which they were admitted as a kind of lay-brothers. The form of their admission was putting the bell-ropes of the church round their necks, as a mark of servitude. They wore a religious habit, but different from that of the monks.
Is that by which we are bound to the performance of any action, 1. Rational obligation is that which arises from reason, abstractly taken, to do or forbear certain actions.--2. Authoritative obligation is that which arises from the commands of a superior, or one who has a right or authority to prescribe rules to others.--3. Moral obligation is that by which we are bound to perform that which is right, and to avoid that which is wrong. It is a moral necessity of doing actions or forbearing them; that is, such a necessity as whoever breaks through it, is, ipso facto, worthy of blame for so doing. Various, however, have been the opinions concerning the ground of moral obligation, or what it arises from. One says, from the moral fitness of things; another, because it is conformable to reason and nature; another, because it is conformable to truth; and another, because it is expedient, and promotes the public good. A late writer has defined obligation to be " a state of mind perceiving the reasons for acting, and forbearing to act." But I confess this has a difficulty in it to me; because it carries with it an idea that if a man should by his habitual practice of iniquity be so hardened as to lose a sense of duty, and not perceive the reasons why he should act morally, then he is under no obligation. And thus a depraved man might say he is under no obligation to obey the laws of the land, because, through his desire of living a licentious life, he is led to suppose that there should be none. In my opinion, a difference should be made between obligation and a sense of it. Moral obligation, I think, arises from the will of God, as revealed in the light and law of nature, and in his word. This is binding upon all men, because there is no situation in which mankind have not either one or the other of these. We find, however, that the generality of men are so far sunk in depravity, that a sense of obligation is nearly or quite lost. Still, however, their losing the sense does not render the obligation less strong. "Obligation to virtue is eternal and immutable, but the sense of it is lost by sin." See Warburton's Legation, vol. i. p. 38, 46, &c. Paley's Mor. Phil. p. 54, vol. i.Robinson's preface to the Fourth Volume of Saurin's Sermons; Mason's Christian Morals, ser. 23, p. 256, vol. ii. Doddridge's Lect. lect. 52; Grove's Phil. vol. ii. p. 66.
See MIND.
See DISPENSATION.
A sect of philosophers in France, who have made a great noise in Europe, and are generally supposed to have been unfriendly to religion. The founder of this sect was Dr. Duquesnoi, who had so well insinuated himself into the favour of Louis XV. that the king used to call him his Thinker. The sect was called Economists, because the economy and order to be introduced into the finances, and other means of alleviating the distresses of the people, were perpetually in their mouths. The abbe Barruel admits that there may have been some few of them who directed their speculations to no other object; but he brings very sufficient proof that the aim of the majority of the sect was to distribute the writings of Voltaire, Diderot, and others, and thus to eradicate from the minds of the people all reverence for divine revelation. See PHILOSOPHISTS.
Or OBLATION, denotes whatever is sacrificed or consumed in the worship of God. For an account of the various offerings under the law, the reader is referred to the book of Leviticus. See also SACRIFICE.
See CHURCH, DEACON, ELDER.
Are generally considered as threefold. 1. A prophet to enlighten and instruct, John vi. 14. John iii. 2.--2. A priest to make atonement for his people, Isaiah liii. Heb. vii.--3. A king to reign in, and rule over them, Zech. xi. 9. Psal. ii. 6. See articles INTERCESSION, MEDIATOR, &c.
Is a word which, in its proper sense, signifies a sign or indication of some future event, especially of an alarming nature. Against the belief of omens it is observed, that it is contrary to every principle of sound philosophy; and whoever has studied the writings of St. Paul must be convinced that it is inconsistent with the spirit of genuine Christianity. We cannot pretend to discuss the subject here, but will present the reader with a quotation on the other side of the question. "Though it be true," says Mr. Toplady, "that all omens are not worthy of observation, and though they should never be so regarded as to shock our fortitude, or diminish our confidence in God, still they are not to be constantly despised. Small incidents have sometimes been prelusive to great events; nor is there any superstition in noticing these apparent prognostications, though there may be much superstition in being either too indiscriminately or too deeply swayed by them."--Toplady's Works, vol. iv. p. 192.
Is his almighty power. This is essential to his nature as an infinite, independent, and perfect being. The power of God is divided into absolute, and ordinate or actual. Absolute, is that whereby God is able to do that which he will not do, but is possible to be done. Ordinate is that whereby he doeth that which he hath decreed to do. The power of God may be more especially seen, 1. In creation, Rom. i. 20. Genesis i.--2. In the preservation of his creatures, Heb. i. 3. Col. i. 16,17. Job xxvi.--3. In the redemption of men by Christ, Luke i. 35, 37. Eph. i. 19.--4. In the conversion of sinners, Psal. cx. 3. 2 Cor. iv. 7. Rom. i. 16.--5. In the continuation and success of the Gospel in the world, Matt. xiii. 31, 32.--6. In the final perseverance of the saints, 1 Pet. i. 5.--7. In the resurrection of the dead, 1 Cor. xv.--8. In making the righteous happy for ever, and punishing the wicked, Phil. iii. 21. Matt. xxv. 34, &c. See Gill's Body of Div. vol. i. oct. edit. p. 77; Charnock's Works, vol. i. p. 423; Saurin's Sermons, vol. i. p. 157; Tillotson's Sermons, ser. 152.
Is his ubiquity, or his being present in every place. This may be argued from his infinity, Ps. cxxxix, his power, which is every where, Heb. i. 3; his providence, Acts xvii. 27, 28, which supplies all. As he is a spirit, he is so omnipresent as not to be mixed with the creature, or divided, part in one place, and part in another; nor is he multiplied or extended, but is essentially present every where. From the consideration of this attribute we should learn to fear and reverence God, Psal. lxxxix. 7. To derive consolation in the hour of distress, Is. xliii. 2. Ps. xlvi. 1. To be active and diligent in holy services, Psal. cxix. 168. See Charnock's Works, vol. i. p. 240; Abernethy's Sermons, ser. 7; Howe's Works, vol. i. p. 108, 110; Saurin's Sermons, vol. i. ser. 3; Gill's Body of Div. b. i; Spect. vol. viii. No. 565, 571; Tillotson's Sermons, ser. 154.
Is that perfection by which he knows all things, and is, 1. Infinite knowledge, Ps. cxivi. 5.--2. Eternal, generally called foreknowledge, Acts. xv. 18. Isa. xlvi. 10. Eph. i. 4. Acts ii. 23.--3. Universal, extending to all persons, times, places, and things, Heb. iv. 13. Psalm l. 10. &c.--4. perfect, relating to what is past, present, and to come. He knows all by his own essence, and not derived from any other; not successively, as we do, but independently, distinctly, infallibly, and perpetually, Jer. x. 6,7. Rom. xi. 33.--5. This knowledge is peculiar to himself, Mark xiii. 32. Job xxxvi. 4. and not communicable to any creature.--6. It is incomprehensible to us how God knows all things, yet it is evident that he does; for to suppose otherwise is to suppose him an imperfect being, and directly contrary to the revelation he has given of himself, 1 John iii. 20. Job xxviii. 24. Job xxi. 22. See Charnock's Works, vol. i. p. 271; Abernethy's Sermons, vol. i. p. 290, 306; Howe's Works, vol. i. p. 102, 103; Gill's Div. vol. i. p. 85. oct.
See SERPENTINIANS.
Is that judgment which the mind forms of any proposition, for the truth or falsehood of which there is not sufficient evidence to produce absolute belief.
Among the Heathens, was the answer which the
gods were supposed to give to those who consulted them upon any affair of
importance. It is also used for the god who was thought to give the answer, and
for the space where it was given. Learned men are much divided as to the source
of these oracles. Some suppose that they were only the invention of priests;
while others conceive that there was a diabolical agency employed in the
business. There are, as one observes, several circumstances leading to the
former hypothesis: such as the gloomy solemnity with which many of them were delivered
in caves and subterraneous caverns: the numerous and disagreeable ceremonies
enjoined, as sometimes sleeping in the skins of beasts, bathing, and expensive
sacrifices; the ambiguous and unsatisfactory answers frequently returned: these
look very much like the contrivances of artful priests to disguise their
villany; the medium of priests, speaking images, vocal groves, &c. seem
much to confirm it. On the other hand, if we may credit the relation of ancient
writers, either among Heathens or Christians, this hypothesis will hardly
account for many of the instances they mention. And since it cannot be proved
either impossible or unscriptural, is it not probable that God sometimes
permits an intercourse with infernal spirits, with a design, in the end, to
turn this and every other circumstance to his own glory?
Respecting the cessation of these oracles, there
have been a variety of opinions. It has been generally held, indeed, that
oracles ceased at the birth of Jesus Christ: yet some have endeavoured to
maintain the contrary, by showing that they were in being in the days of
Julian, commonly called the apostate, and that this emperor himself consulted
them; nay, farther, say they, history makes mention of several laws published
by the Christian emperors, Theodosius, Gratian, and Valentinian, to punish
persons who interrogated them, even in their days; and that the Epicureans were
the first who made a jest of this superstition, and exposed the roguery of its
priests to the people.
But on the other side it is observed, 1. That the
question, properly stated, is not. Whether oracles became extinct immediately
upon the birth of Christ, or from the very moment he was born; but, Whether
they fell gradually into disesteem, and ceased as Christ and his Gospel became
known to mankind? And that they did so is most certain from the concurrent
testimonies of the fathers, which whoever would endeavour to invalidate, may
equally give up the most respectable traditions and relations of every kind.
2dly, But did not Julian the apostate consult
these oracles? We answer in the negative: he had, indeed, recourse to magical
operations, but it was because oracles had already ceased; for he bewailed the
loss of them, and assigned pitiful reasons for it; which St. Cyril has
vigorously refuted, saying, that he never could have offered such, but from an
unwillingness to acknowledge, that, when the world had received the light of
Christ, the dominion of the devil was at an end.
3dly. The Christian emperors do, indeed, seem to
condemn the superstition and idolatry of those who were still for consulting
oracles; but the edicts of those princes do not prove that oracles actually
existed in their times, any more than that they ceased in consequence of their
laws. It is certain that they were for the most part extinct before the
conversion of Constantine.
4thly. Some Epicureans might make a jest of this
superstition; however, the Epicurean philosopher Celsus, in the second century
of the church, was for crying up the excellency of several oracles, as appears
at large from Origen's seventh book against him.
Among the Jews there were several sorts of real
oracles. They had, first, oracles that were delivered viva voice; as when God
spake to Moses face to face, and as one friend speaks to another, Numb. xii. 8.
Secondly, Prophetical dreams sent by God; as the dreams which God sent to
Joseph, and which foretold his future greatness, Gen. xxvii. 5,6. Thirdly,
Visions; as when a prophet in an ecstacy, being neither properly asleep nor
awake, had supernatural revelations, Gen. xv. 1. Gen. xlvi. 2. Fourthly, The
oracle of the Urim and Thummim, which was accompanied with the ephod, or the
pectoral worn by the high priest, and which God had endued with the gift of
foretelling things to come, Numb. xii. 6. Joel. ii. 28. This manner of
inquiring of the Lord was often made use of, from Joshua's time to the erection
of the temple at Jerusalem. Fifthly, After the building of the temple, they
generally consulted the prophets, who were frequent in the kingdoms of Judah
and Israel. From Haggai, Zechariah, and Malachi, who are the last of the
prophets that have any of their writings remaining, the Jews pretend that God
gave them what they call Bathkol, the Daughter of the Voice, which was a
supernatural manifestation of the will of God, which was performed either by a
strong inspiration or internal voice, or else by a sensible and external voice,
which was heard by a number of persons sufficient to bear testimony of it. For
example, such was the voice that was heard at the baptism of Jesus Christ,
saying, This is my beloved Son, &c. Matt. iii. 17.
The scripture affords us examples likewise of
profane oracles. Balaam, at the instigation of his own spirit, and urged on by
his avarice, fearing to lose thy recompence that he was promised by Balak, king
of the Moabites, suggests a diabolical expedient to this prince of making the
Israelites fall into idolatry and fornication, (Numb. xxiv. 14. Numb. xxxi.
16.) by which he assures him of a certain victory, or at least of considerable
advantage against the people of God.
Micaiah, the son of Imlah, a prophet of the Lord,
says (1 Kings xxii. 20, &c.) that he saw the Almighty, sitting upon his
throne, and all the host of heaven round about him; and the Lord said, Who
shall tempt Ahab, king of Israel, that he may go to war with Ramoth Gilead, and
fall in the battle? One answered after one manner, and another in another. At
the same time an evil spirit presented himself before the Lord, and said, I
will seduce him. And the Lord asked him, How? To which Satan answered, I will
go and be a lying spirit in the mouth of his prophets. And the Lord said, Go,
and thou shalt prevail. This dialogue clearly proves these two things; first,
that the devil could do nothing by his own power; and, secondly, that, with the
permission of God, he could inspire the false prophets, sorcerers, and
magicians, and make them deliver false oracles. See Vandals and Fontenelle's
Hist. de Orac; Potter's Greek Antiquities, vol. i. b. 2. ch. 7; Edwards's Hist.
of Red. P. 408; Farmer on Mir. p. 281, 285; Enc. Brit. article ORACLE.
Delivered by the month, not written. See TRADITION.
A name given by Christians to certain places of
religious worship.
In ecclesiastical antiquity, the term houses of
prayer, or oratories, is frequently given to churches in general, of which
there are innumerable instances in ancient Christian writers. But in some
canons the name oratory seems confined to private chapels or places of worship
set up for the convenience of private families, yet still depending on the
parochial churches, and differing from them in this, that they were only places
of prayer, but not for celebrating the communion; for if that were at any time allowed
to private families, yet, at least, upon the great and solemn festivals, they
were to resort for communion to the parish churches.
Oratory is used among the Romanists for a closet,
or little apartment near a bed-chamber, furnished with a little altar,
crucifix, &c. for private devotion.
Oratory, Priests of the. There were two
congregations of religious, one in Italy, the other in France, which were
called by his name.
The Priests of the Oratory in Italy had for their
founder, St. Phillip de Neri, a native of Florence, who, in the year 1548,
founded at Rome the Confraternity of the Holy Trinity. This Society originally
consisted of but fifteen poor persons, who assembled in the church of St.
Saviour, in campo, every first Sunday in the month, to practise the exercises
of piety described by the holy founder. Afterwards their number increasing by
the addition of several persons of distinction of the society, St. Philip
proceeded to establish a hospital for the reception of poor pilgrims, who,
coming to Rome to visit the tombs of St. Peter and St. Paul, were obliged, for
want of a lodging, to lie in the streets, and at the doors of churches. For
this charitable purpose, pope Paul IV. gave to the society the parochial church
of St. Benedict, close by which was built a hospital, so large, that in the
Jubilee year 1600, it received 444,500 men, and 25,500 women, who came in
pilgrimage to Rome.
The Priest of the Oratory in France were
established on the model of those in Italy, and owe their rise to cardinal
Berulle, a native of Champagne, who resolved upon this foundation in order to
revive the splendour of the ecclesiastical state, which was greatly sunk
through the miseries of the civil wars, the increase of heresies, and a general
corruption of manners. To this end he assembled a community of ecclesiastics,
in 1611, in the suburb of St. James. They obtained the king's letter patent for
their establishment; and, in 1613, pope Paul V. approved this congregation,
under the title of the Oratory of Jesus.
This congregation consisted of two sorts of
persons; the one, as it were, incorporated; the other only associates: the
former governed the houses of this institute; the latter were only employed in
forming themselves to the life and manners of ecclesiastics. And this was the
true spirit of this congregation, in which they taught neither human learning
nor theology, but only the virtues of the ecclesiastical life.
Method; the established manner of performing a thing. Nothing can be more beautiful in religion and morals than order. The neglect of it exposes us to the inroads of vice, and often brings upon us the most perplexing events. Whether we consider it in reference to ourselves, our families, or the church, it is of the greatest importance. As to the first, order should be attended to as it respects our principles, Heb. xiii. 9. James i. 8: our tempers, Prov. xvii. 14. Eph. iv. 31; our conversation, Col. iv. 6; our business, Prov. xxii. 29; our time, Ps. xc. 12. Eccl. iii. 1; our recreations; and our general conduct, Phil. i. 27. 2 Pet. i. 5, &c.--2. As it regards our families, there should be order; as to the economy or management of its concerns, Matt. xii. 25; as to devotion, and the time of it, Jos. xxiv. 15; as to the instruction thereof, Eph. vi. 1. Gen. xviii. 19. 2 Tim. i. 5.--3. In respect to the church, order should be observed as to the admission of members, 2 Cor. vi. 15; as to the administration of its ordinances, 1 Cor. xiv. 33, 40; as to the attendance on its worship, Ps. xxvii. 4; as to our behaviour therein, Col. i. 10. Matt. v. 16. To excite us to the practice of this duty, we should consider that God is a God of order, 1 Cor. xiv. 33; his works are all in the exactest order, Eph. i. 11. Psalm. civ. 25. Eccl. iii. 11; heaven is a place of order, Rev. vii. 9. Jesus Christ was a most beautiful example of regularity. The advantages of order are numerous. "The observance of it," says Dr. Blair, "serves to correct that negligence which makes us omit some duties, and that hurry and precipitancy which makes us perform others imperfectly. Our attention is thereby directed to its proper objects. We follow the straight path which Providence has pointed out to us; in the course of which all the different business of life presents itself regularly to us on every side. Ser. vol. ii. p. 23.
By way of eminency, or holy orders, denote a character peculiar to ecclesiastics, whereby they are set apart for the ministry. This the Romanists make their sixth sacrament. In no reformed church are there more than three orders, viz. bishops, priests, and deacons. In the Romish church there are seven, exclusive of the episcopate; all which the council of Trent enjoins to be received and believed on pain of anathema. They are distinguished into petty or secular orders, and major or sacred orders. Orders, the petty or minor, are four, viz. those of door-keepers, exorcist, reader, and acolyth. Sacred, or major, are deacon, priest, and bishop.
Are congregations or societies of monasteries living under the same superior, in the same manner, and wearing the same habit. Religious orders may be reduced to five kinds, viz. monks, canons, knights, mendicants, and regular clerks. White order denotes the order of regular canons, of St. Augustine. Black order denotes the order of St. Benedict. Orders religious military are those instituted to defence of the faith, and privileged to say mass, and who are prohibited marriage, &c. Of this kind are the knights of Malta, or of St. John of Jerusalem. Such also were the knights templars, the knights of Calatrave, of St. Lazarus, Teutonic knights, &c.
Are institutions of divine authority relating to the worship of God; such as baptism, Matt. xxviii. 19.--2. The Lord's supper, 1 Cor. xi. 24, &c.--3. Public ministry, or preaching and reading the word, Rom. x. 15, Eph. iv. 13. Mark, xvi. 15.--4. Hearing the Gospel, Mark, iv. 24. Rom. x. 17.--5. Public prayer, 1 Cor. xvi. 15, 19. Matt. vi. 6. Psal. v. 1, 7.--6. Singing of psalms, Col. iii. 16. Eph. v. 19.--7. Fasting, James iv. 9. Matt. ix. 15. Joel ii. 12.--8. Solemn thanksgiving, Ps. l. 14. 1 Thess. v. 18.--See these different articles; also MEANS OF GRACE.
The act of conferring holy orders, or of initiating
a person into the priesthood by prayer and the laying on of hands. Among the
dissenters, ordination is the public setting apart of a minister to his work,
or over the people whose call he has accepted. In the church of England,
ordination has always been esteemed the principal prerogative of bishops, and
they still retain the function as a mark or their spiritual sovereignty in
their diocess. Without ordination no person can receive any benefice,
parsonage, vicarage, &c. A person must be twenty-three years of age, or
near it, before he can be ordained deacon, or have any share in the ministry;
and full twenty-four before he can be ordained priest, and by that means be
permitted to administer the holy communion. A bishop, on the ordination of
clergymen, is to examine them in the presence of the ministers, who in the
ordination of priests, but not of deacons, assist him at the imposition of
hands; but this is only done as a mark of assent, not because it is thought
necessary. In case any crime, as drunkenness, perjury, forgery, &c. is
alleged against any one that is to be ordained either priest or deacon, the
bishop ought to desist from ordaining him. The person to be ordained is to
bring a testimonial of his life and doctrine to the bishop, and to give account
of his faith in Latin; and both priests and deacons are obliged to subscribe to
the thirty-nine articles. In the ancient discipline there was no such thing as
a vague and absolute ordination; but every one was to have a church, whereof he
was to be ordained clerk or priest. In the twelfth century they grew more
remiss, and ordained without any title or benefice. The council of Trent,
however, restored the ancient discipline, and appointed that none should be
ordained but those who were provided with a benefice; which practice still
obtains in England. The times of ordination are the four Sundays immediately
following the Ember weeks; being the second Sunday in Lent, Trinity Sunday, and
the Sundays following the first Wednesday after September 14 and December 13.
These are the stated times; but ordination may take place at any other time,
according to the discretion of the bishop, or circumstances of the case. Among
Seceders or Dissenters, ordinations vary. In the establishment of Scotland,
where there are no bishops, the power of ordination is lodged in the
presbytery. Among the Calvinistic Methodists, ordination is performed by the
sanction and assistance of their own ministers. Among the Independents and
Baptists, the power of ordination lies in the suffrage of the people. The
qualifications of the candidates are first known, tried, and approved by the
church. After which trial, the church proceeds to give him a call to be their
minister; which he accepting, the public acknowledgment thereof is signified by
ordination, the mode of which is so well known, as not to need recital here.
According to the former opinion, it is argued
that the word ordain was originally equal to choose or appoint; so that if
twenty Christians nominated a man to instruct them once, the man was appointed
or ordained a preacher for the time. The essence of ordination lies in the
voluntary choice and call of the people, and in the voluntary acceptance of
that call by the person chosen and called; for this affair must be by mutual
consent and agreement, which joins them together as pastor and people. And this
is to be done among themselves; and public ordination, so called, is not other
than a declaration of that. Election and ordination are spoken of as the same;
the latter is expressed and explained by the former. It is said of Christ, that
he ordained twelve, Mark iii. 14. that is, he chose them to the office of
apostleship, as he himself explains it, John vi. 70. Paul and Barnabas are said
to ordain elders in every church (Acts xiv. 23.) or to choose them; that is,
they gave orders and directions to every church as to the choice of elders over
them: for sometimes persons are said to do that which they give orders and
directions for doing; as Moses and Solomon, with respect to building the
tabernacle and temple, though done by others; and Moses particularly is said to
choose the judges, Ex. xviii. 25. the choice being made under his direction and
guidance. The word that is used in Acts xiv. 23. is translated chosen in Cor.
ii. 8, 19. where the apostle speaks of a brother, who was chosen of the
churches to travel with us, and is so rendered when ascribed to God, Acts x.
41. This choice and ordination, in primitive times, was made two ways; by
casting lots and giving votes, signified by stretching out of hands. Matthias
was chosen and ordained to be an apostle in the room of Judas by casting lots:
that being an extraordinary office, required an immediate interposition of the
Divine Being, a lot being nothing more nor less than an appeal to God for the
decision of an affair. But ordinary officers, as elders and pastors of
churches, were chosen and ordained by the votes of the people, expressed by
stretching out their hands; thus it is said of the apostles, Acts xiv. 23. When
they had ordained them elders in every church, by taking the suffrages and
votes of the members of the churches, shown by the stretching out of their
hands, as the word signifies; and which they directed them to, and upon it
declared the elders duly elected and ordained.
Some, however, on this side of the question, do
not go so far as to say, that the essence of ordination lies in the choice of
the people, but in the solemn and public separation to office by prayer: still,
however, they think that ordination by either bishops, presbyters, or any
superior character, cannot be necessary to make a minister or ordain a pastor
in any particular church; for Jesus Christ, say they, would never leave the
subsistence of his churches, or the efficacy of his word and sacraments, to
depend on the uninterrupted succession of any office or officer: for then it
would be impossible for any church to know whether they ever have had any
authentic minister; for we could never be assured that such ordinations had
been rightly transmitted through 1700 years. A whole nation might be corrupted,
and every bishop and elder therein might have apostatized from the faith, as it
was in England in the days of popery. To say, therefore, that the right of
ordaining lies in men who are already in office, would drive us to hold the
above-mentioned untenable position of uninterrupted succession.
On the other side it is observed, that, although
Christians have the liberty of choosing their own pastor, yet they have no
power or right to confer the office itself. Scripture represents ordination to
be the setting apart of a person to the holy ministry, by the authority of
Jesus himself acting by the medium of men in office; and this solemn investing
act is necessary to his being lawfully accounted a minister of Christ. The
original word, Acts vi. 3. which according to Scapula, and the best writers on
the sacred language, signifies to put one in rule, or to give him authority.
Now did this power lodge in the people, how happens it that in all the epistles,
not a single word is to be found giving them any directions about constituting
ministers? On the other hand, in the epistles to timothy and Titus, who were
persons in office, we find particular instructions given them to lay hands
suddenly on no man, to examine his qualifications before they ordain him, and
to take care that they commit the office only to faithful men, who shall be
able to teach others also, Titus i. 5. 2 Tim. iv. 14. Acts xiv. 23.
Besides, it is said, the primitive Christians evidently
viewed this matter in the same light. There is scarcely a simple ecclesiastical
writer that does not expressly mention ordination as the work of the elders,
and as being regarded as a distinct thing from the choice of the people, and
subsequent to it.
Most of the foregoing remarks apply chiefly to
the supposition, that a person cannot be ordained in any other way than as a
pastor over a church. But here, also, we find a difference of opinion. On the
one side it is said, that there is no Scripture authority whatever for a person
being ordained without being chosen or nominated to the office of a minister by
a church. Elders and bishops were ordained in every church, not without any
church. To ordain a man originally, says Dr. Campbell, was nothing else but in
a solemn manner to assign him a pastoral charge. To give him no charge, and not
to ordain him, were perfectly identical. On the other side it is contended,
that from these words, "Go ye into all the world, and preach the Gospel to
every creature; and, lo, I am with you always, even unto the end of the
world." it is evident that missionaries and itinerants must be employed in
the important work of the ministry; that, as such cannot be ordaining them for
the church universal. Allowing that they have all those talents, gifts, and
grace, that constitute a minister in the sight of God, who will dare say they
should not be designated by their brethren for the administration of those
ordinances Christ has appointed in the church?--Without allowing this, how many
thousands would be destitute of these ordinances? Besides, these are the very
men whom God in general honours as the first instruments in raising churches,
over which stated pastors are afterwards fixed. The separation of Saul and
Barnabas, say they, was an ordination to missionary work, including the
administration of sacraments to the converted Heathen, as well as public
instruction, Acts xiii. 1, 3. So timothy was ordained, 1 Tim. iv. 14. Acts xvi.
3. and there is equal reason, by analogy, to suppose that Titus and other
companions of Paul were similarly ordained, without any of them having a
particular church to take under his pastoral care. So that they appear to have
been ordained to the work of the Christian ministry at large.
On reviewing the whole of this controversy, I
would say with Dr. Watts, "that since there are some texts in the New
Testament, wherein single persons, either apostles, as Paul and Barnabas,
ordained ministers in the churches; or evangelists, as Timothy and Titus; and
since other missions or ordinations are intimated to be performed by several
persons, viz. prophets, teachers, elders, or a presbytery, as in Acts xiii. 1.
and 1 Tim. iv. 14; since there is sometimes mention made of the imposition of
hands in the mission of a minister, and sometimes no mention of it; and since
it is evident that in some cases popular ordinations are and must be valid
without any bishop or elder; I think none of these differences should be made a
matter of violent contest among Christians; nor ought any words to be
pronounced against each other by those of the episcopal, presbyterian, or
independent way. Surely, all may agree thus far, that various forms or modes,
seeming to be used in the mission or ordination of ministers in primitive
times, may give a reasonable occasion or colour for sincere and honest
searchers after truth to follow different opinions on this head, and do
therefore demand our candid and charitable sentiments concerning those who
differ from us." See articles EPISCOPACY, IMPOSITION OF HANDS,
INDEPENDENTS, and MINISTERIAL CALL, in this work; James Owen's Plea for
Scripture Ordination; Doddridge's Tracts, v. ii. p. 253-257; Dr. Owen's True
Nature of a Gospel Church, p. 78, 83; Brekell's Essay on Ordination; Watts' Rational
foundation of a Christian Church, sec. 3; Dr. Campbell's Lectures on
Ecclesiastical History, vol. i. p. 345; Gill's Body of Divinity, p. 246. vol.
iii. 8 vo.ed. Theological Magazine for 1802, p. 33, 90, 167; Ewing's Remarks on
Dick's Sermon, preached before the Edinburgh Missionary Society, in 1801.
A denomination which appeared in the third
century, who derived their opinions from the writings of Origen, a presbyter of
Alexandria, and a man of vast and uncommon abilities, who interpreted the
divine truths of religion according to the tenor of the Platonic philosophy. He
alleged, that the source of many evils lies in adhering to the literal and
external part of Scripture: and that the true meaning of the sacred writers was
to be sought in a mysterious and hidden sense, arising from the nature of
things themselves.
The principal tenets ascribed to Origen, together
with a few of the reasons made use of in their defence, are comprehended in the
following summary:--
1. That there is a pre-existent state of human
souls. For the nature of the soul is such as to make her capable of existing
eternally, backward as well as forward, because her spiritual essence, as such,
makes it impossible that she should, either through age or violence, be
dissolved: so that nothing is wanting to her existence but the good pleasure of
him from whom all things proceed. And if, according to the Platonic scheme, we
assign the production of all things to the exuberant fulness of life in the
Deity, which, through the blessed necessity of his communicative nature,
empties itself into all possibilities of being, as into so many capable
receptacles, we must suppose her existence in a sense necessary, and in a
degree co-eternal with God.
2. That souls were condemned to animate mortal
bodies, in order to expiate faults they had committed in a pre-existent state:
for we may be assured, from the infinite goodness of their Creator, that they
were at first joined to the purest matter, and placed in those regions of the
universe which were most suitable to the purity of essence they then possessed.
For that the souls of men are an order of essentially incorporate spirits,
their deep immersion into terrestrial matter, the modification of all their
operations by it, and the heavenly body promised in the Gospel, as the highest
perfection of our renewed nature, clearly evince. Therefore if our souls
existed before they appeared inhabitants of the earth, they were placed in a purer
element, and enjoyed far greater degrees of happiness. And certainly he, whose
overflowing goodness brought them into existence, would not deprive them of
their felicity, till by their mutability they rendered themselves less pure in
the whole extent of their powers, and became disposed for the susception of
such a degree of corporeal life as was exactly answerable to their present
disposition of spirit. Hence it was necessary that they should become
terrestrial men.
3. That the soul of Christ was united to the Word
before the incarnation. For the Scriptures teach us that the soul of the
Messiah was created before the beginning of the world, Phil. ii. 5, 7. This
text must be understood of Christ's human soul, because it is unusual to
propound the Deity as an example of humility in Scripture. Though the humanity
of Christ was so God-like, he emptied himself of this fulness of life and
glory, to take upon him the form of a servant. It was this Messiah who
conversed with the patriarchs under a human form: it was he who appeared to
Moses upon the Holy Mount: it was he who spoke to the prophets under a visible
appearance: and it is he who will at last come in triumph upon the clouds to
restore the universe to its primitive splendour and felicity.
4. That at the resurrection of the dead we shall
be clothed with ethereal bodies. For the elements of our terrestrial
compositions are such as almost fatally entangled us in vice, passion, and
misery. The purer the vehicle the soul is united with, the more perfect is her
life and operations. Besides the Supreme Goodness who made all things, assures
us he made all things best at first, and therefore his recovery of us to our
lost happiness (which is the design of the Gospel,) must restore us to our
better bodies and happier habitations, which is evident from 1 Cor. xv. 49. 2
Cor. v. 1. and other texts of Scripture.
5. That, after long periods of time, the damned
shall be released from their torments, and restored to a new state of
probation. For the Deity has such reserves in his gracious providence, as will
vindicate his sovereign goodness and wisdom from all disparagement. Expiatory
pains are a part of his adorable plan; for this sharper kind of favour has a
righteous place in such creatures as are by nature mutable. Though sin has
extinguished or silenced the divine life, yet it has not destroyed the
faculties of reason and understanding, consideration and memory, which will
serve the life which is most powerful. If, therefore, the vigorous attraction
of the sensual nature be abated by a ceaseless pain, these powers may resume
the seeds of a better life and nature. As in the material system there is a
gravitation of the less bodies towards the greater, there must of necessity be
something analogous to this in the intellectual system; and since the spirits
created by God are emanations and streams from his own abyss of being, and as
self-existent power must needs subject all beings to itself, the Deity could
not but impress upon her intimate natures and substances a central tendency
towards himself; an essential principle of reunion to their great original.
6. That the earth after its conflagration shall
become habitable again, and be the mansion of men and animals, and that in
eternal vicissitudes. For it is thus expressed in Isaiah: Behold I make new
heavens, and a new earth; &c. and in Heb. i. 10, 12. thou, Lord, in the
beginning hast laid the foundations of the earth; as a vesture shalt thou
change them, and they shall be changed, &c. Where there is only a change
the substance is not destroyed, this change being only as that of a garment
worn out and decaying. The fashion of the world passes away like a turning
scene, to exhibit a fresh and new representation of things; and if only the
present dress and appearance of things go off, the substance is supposed to
remain entire.
See FALL, SIN.
See Sin.
Soundness of doctrine or opinion in matters of
religion. The doctrines which are generally considered as orthodox among us,
are such as were generally professed at the time of the reformation, viz. the
fall of man, regeneration, atonement, repentance, justification by free grace,
&c.
Some have thought, that, in order to keep error
out of the church, there should be some human form as a standard of orthodoxy,
wherein certain disputed doctrines shall be expressed in such determinate
phrases as may be directly levelled against such errors as shall prevail from
time to time, requiring those especially who are to be public teachers in the
church to subscribe or virtually to declare their assent to such formularies.
But as Dr. Doddridge observes, 1. Had this been requisite, it is probable that
the Scriptures would have given us some such formularies as these,k or some
directions as to the manner in which they should be drawn up, proposed, and
received.--2. It is impossible that weak and passionate men, who have perhaps
been heated in the very controversy thus decided, should express themselves
with greater propriety than the apostles did.--3. It is plain, in fact, that
this practice has been the cause of great contention in the Christian church,
and such formularies have been the grand engine of dividing it, in proportion
to the degree in which they have been multiplied and urged.--4. This is laying
a great temptation in the way of such as desire to undertake the office of
teachers in the church, and will be most likely to deter and afflict those who
have the greatest tenderness of conscience, and therefore (caet par.) best
deserve encouragement.--5. It is not likely to answer the end proposed, viz.
the preserving and uniformity of opinion, since persons of little integrity may
satisfy their consciences, in subscribing what they do not at all believe as
articles of peace, or in putting the most unnatural sense on the words. And
whereas, in answer to all these inconveniences, it is pleaded, that such forms
are necessary to keep the church from heresy, and it is better there should be
some hypocrites under such forms of orthodoxy, than that a freedom of debate
and opinion should be allowed to all teachers; the answer is plain, that, when
any one begins to preach doctrines which appear to those who attend upon him
dangerous and subversive of Christianity, it will be time enough to proceed to
such animadversion as the nature of his error in their apprehension will
require and his relation to them will admit. See articles ESTABLISHMENT and
SUBSCRIPTION; Doddridge's Lectures, lec. 174; Watts's Orthodoxy and Charity
United.
A denomination among the Lutherans, which was
founded in the year 1550, by Andrew Osiander, a celebrated German divine, whose
doctrine amounted to the following propositions:--
1. That Christ, considered in his human nature
only, could not, by his obedience to the divine law, obtain justification and
pardon for sinners; neither can we be justified before God, by embracing and
applying to ourselves, through faith, the righteousness and obedience of the
man Christ. It is only through that eternal and essential righteousness which
dwells in Christ, considered as God, and which resides in his divine nature,
that is united to the human, that mankind can obtain complete justification.
2. That a man becomes a partaker of this divine
righteousness by faith, since it is in consequence of this uniting principle
that Christ dwells in the heart of man with his divine righteousness. Now,
wherever this divine righteousness dwells, there God can behold no sin;
therefore, when it is present with Christ in the hearts of the regenerate, they
are on its account considered by the Deity as righteous, although they be
sinners. Moreover, this divine and justifying righteousness of Christ excites
the faithful to the pursuit of holiness, and to the practice of virtue.
A denomination of the first century, which taught that faith may and ought to be dissembled.